Child Labor and Forced Labor Reports
Zimbabwe
Minimal Advancement – Efforts Made but Regression in Practice that Delayed Advancement
In 2021, Zimbabwe made minimal advancement in efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labor. The National Assembly began consideration of amendments to the Labor Act, which would increase penalties for child labor violations. The government, with the United Nations, also launched an updated Sustainable Development Cooperation Assistance Framework, prioritizing increased educational access and social protections for girls and other groups vulnerable to child labor. However, Zimbabwe is assessed as having made only minimal advancement because it implemented a practice that delays advancement to eliminate child labor. Evidenced by a pattern of threats and intimidation of worker organizations and trade unionists, high-level officials within the Government of Zimbabwe and the ruling political party interfered with a delegation representing worker and civil society organizations to investigate concerns of child labor occurring at a commercial farm, sending party activists to the farm to threaten and intimidate the delegation. Children in Zimbabwe are subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including in commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking, and forced labor in mines and on farms. Children also engage in child labor in agriculture, including in the harvesting of sugarcane and tobacco. The government did not publicly release information on its labor and criminal law enforcement efforts for inclusion in this report, and law enforcement agencies lack resources to enforce child labor laws.
Children in Zimbabwe are subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including in commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking. Children also experience forced labor in mines and on farms. Children also engage in child labor in agriculture, including in the harvesting of sugarcane and tobacco. (1,2)
|
Children |
Age |
Percent |
|---|---|---|
|
Working (% and population) |
5 to 14 |
40.4 (Unavailable) |
|
Attending School (%) |
5 to 14 |
90.7 |
|
Combining Work and School (%) |
7 to 14 |
42.0 |
|
Primary Completion Rate (%) |
90.0 |
Source for primary completion rate: Data from 2020, published by UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2022. (3)
Source for all other data: International Labor Organization's analysis of statistics from Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 6 (MICS 6). (4)
Based on a review of available information, Table 2 provides an overview of children's work by sector and activity.
|
Sector/Industry |
Activity |
|---|---|
|
Agriculture |
Farming, including the production of tea, cotton, tobacco, corn, and sugarcane (5-14) |
|
Fishing, including casting nets, hauling fish loads, and sorting fish (2,8,10,15) |
|
|
Work in forestry, such as dragging logs from felling sites and loading logs for transport (2,10) |
|
|
Cattle herding (2,9) |
|
|
Industry |
Mining and panning of gold and chrome, using dangerous chemicals such as cyanide and mercury, and extracting material from underground passages and quarries† (10,16-20) |
|
Molding bricks (18,21,22) |
|
|
Services |
Street work, including vending and begging (8,14,23-26) |
|
Domestic work, including child care, house cleaning, and gardening (8,10,14) |
|
|
Categorical Worst Forms of Child Labor‡ |
Commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking (1,14,27-30) |
|
Forced labor in agriculture, including herding cattle, mining, and domestic work (30) |
† Determined by national law or regulation as hazardous and, as such, relevant to Article 3(d) of ILO C. 182.
‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.
Deteriorating economic conditions likely make children more vulnerable to child labor. (2,32,33) Zimbabwean children living in border towns are trafficked to South Africa, Mozambique, and Zambia, where they become victims of commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor in domestic work. (30) Some families recruit rural children, especially orphans, to work in cities, often with promises of education or adoption. Such children are subject to domestic service or are forced to work in mining. (34) Girls, as young as 11, are subjected to commercial sexual exploitation, particularly along major transit corridors and in mining areas. (1,2,18,30,35)
Children ages 8 to 17 work on tobacco farms, performing activities such as planting, weeding, harvesting, packing, and grading tobacco, tasks that often expose them to toxic chemicals and the effects of nicotine from handling tobacco leaves. (7,20,36) Children also work on sugar plantations in the southeastern part of the country, where they wield dangerous tools and endure high temperatures. (9,37) Moreover, children work at artisanal and small-scale gold-mining sites, where they face risks including collapsed mines and exposure to mercury, and in commercial sexual exploitation around mining areas. In some cases, armed criminal groups have lured children to mining sites with the promise of self-employment and then forced them to mine gold under the threat of physical harm or death. (30) During the COVID-19 pandemic, multiple civil society stakeholders also have observed greater numbers of children engaged in vending, brickmaking, working on tobacco and sugarcane farms, and in the worst forms of child labor, including the use of children in commercial sexual exploitation. (18,26,30,38,39)
During the reporting period, the government implemented a practice that was detrimental to the prevention and elimination of the worst forms of child labor in Zimbabwe by interfering with worker and civil society organizations' efforts to address child labor. Youth activists for the ruling Zimbabwe African Nation Union-Patriotic Front party, under the direction of Kazembe Kazembe, Zimbabwe's Minister of Home Affairs and other high-level government officials, sought to block a delegation of workers and civil society organizations seeking to investigate concerns of child labor occurring at a commercial farm, using threats and other forms of intimidation. (40,41)
The Education Amendment Act stipulates children's right to education regardless of race, nationality, or place of birth. (42,43) However, refugees and undocumented children who come to Zimbabwe from neighboring countries, and children who otherwise lack birth certificates, face barriers to education because, beginning in grade seven, children must present identity documents to sit for national exams. (14,44-46) Children, especially those in rural areas, often are not registered at birth because many Zimbabweans are unaware of birth registration requirements. In addition, impoverished parents sometimes leave their children under the care of other relatives, an arrangement that often complicates the process of obtaining a birth certificate because Zimbabwe requires the presence of at least one parent for birth registration. (47) As a result of these barriers, children may drop out of school, increasing their vulnerability to child labor. (2,8,48) In addition, poor school infrastructure, including lack of water and hygiene facilities, an insufficient number of teachers, and long travel distances to reach schools may contribute to higher dropout rates and vulnerability to child labor, particularly in rural areas. (2)
Zimbabwe has ratified all key international conventions concerning child labor (Table 3).
|
Convention |
Ratification |
|---|---|
|
ILO C. 138, Minimum Age |
✓ |
|
ILO C. 182, Worst Forms of Child Labor |
✓ |
|
UN CRC |
✓ |
|
UN CRC Optional Protocol on Armed Conflict |
✓ |
|
UN CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography |
✓ |
|
Palermo Protocol on Trafficking in Persons |
✓ |
The government has established laws and regulations related to child labor (Table 4). However, gaps exist in Zimbabwe’s legal framework to adequately protect children from the worst forms of child labor, including lack of criminal prohibitions against slavery.
|
Standard |
Meets International Standards |
Age |
Legislation |
|---|---|---|---|
|
Minimum Age for Work |
Yes |
16 |
Section 11.1 of the Labor Act; Section 10A(1) of the Children's Act (49,50) |
|
Minimum Age for Hazardous Work |
Yes |
18 |
Section 11.4 of the Labor Act; Section 10A(4) of the Children's Act (49,50) |
|
Identification of Hazardous Occupations or Activities Prohibited for Children |
Yes |
Section 3.1 of the Labor Relations (Employment of Children and Young Persons) Regulations; Section 2 and 10A(4) of the Children's Act (49,51) |
|
|
Prohibition of Forced Labor |
No |
Sections 54 and 55 of the Constitution; Sections 2 and 4A of the Labor Act; Sections 2 and 3 of the Trafficking in Persons Act (50,52) |
|
|
Prohibition of Child Trafficking |
Yes |
Section 3 of the Trafficking in Persons Act (53) |
|
|
Prohibition of Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children |
Yes |
Sections 61, 83, 86, and 87 of the Criminal Law Act; Section 8(2)a of the Children’s Act; Sections 2 and 3 of the Trafficking in Persons Act (49,53,54) |
|
|
Prohibition of Using Children in Illicit Activities |
Yes |
Section 156 of the Criminal Law Act; Section 10 of the Children’s Act (49,54) |
|
|
Minimum Age for Voluntary State Military Recruitment |
Yes |
16 |
Sections 5, 9, and 10 of the National Service Act (55) |
|
Prohibition of Compulsory Recruitment of Children by (State) Military |
Yes |
Section 9 of the National Service Act (55) |
|
|
Prohibition of Military Recruitment by Non-state Armed Groups |
No |
||
|
Compulsory Education Age |
Yes |
16‡ |
Sections 2 and 5 of the Education Act (42,43) |
|
Free Public Education |
No |
Sections 5, 6, and 13 of the Education Act (42,43) |
‡ Age calculated based on available information (56)
During the reporting period, Parliament began consideration of amendments to the Labor Act that increase both maximum fines and prison sentences from 2 to 10 years for violations related to child labor. (57)
Laws prohibiting forced labor are not sufficient as they do not criminalize slavery. (53) Although the Education Act establishes the right of children to state-funded education up to age 16, the law maintains the ability of the Minister of Education to institute instructional fees. (42,43)
The government has established institutional mechanisms for the enforcement of laws and regulations on child labor (Table 5). However, gaps exist within the authority and operations of enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate enforcement of their child labor laws.
|
Organization/Agency |
Role |
|---|---|
|
Ministry of Public Service, Labor and Social Welfare (MPSLSW) |
Enforces labor and anti-human trafficking laws and investigates labor-related complaints, including those involving child labor. (16) Also conducts industry- and sectoral-based labor inspections through appointed agents of national employment councils, comprising representation from both employers' associations and trade unions. (58,59) |
|
Zimbabwe Republic Police |
Enforce laws related to the worst forms of child labor in conjunction with MPSLSW and the Ministry of Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs. (16) |
|
Ministry of Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs |
Oversees all courts, including labor courts. Addresses human trafficking and child victim cases through victim-centered courts. (16) |
Labor Law Enforcement
In 2021, labor law enforcement agencies in Zimbabwe took actions to address child labor (Table 6). However, gaps exist within the authority of the Ministry of Public Service, Labor and Social Welfare (MPSLSW) that may hinder adequate labor law enforcement, including the lack of authority to assess penalties.
|
Overview of Labor Law Enforcement |
2020 |
2021 |
|---|---|---|
|
Labor Inspectorate Funding |
$25,000 (2) |
Unknown (14) |
|
Number of Labor Inspectors |
120 (2) |
Unknown (2) |
|
Mechanism to Assess Civil Penalties |
No (2,60) |
No (60) |
|
Initial Training for New Labor Inspectors |
Yes (2) |
Unknown (14) |
|
Training on New Laws Related to Child Labor |
N/A (2) |
Unknown (2) |
|
Refresher Courses Provided |
Yes |
Unknown (14) |
|
Number of Labor Inspections Conducted |
1,860 (2) |
Unknown (14) |
|
Number Conducted at Worksite |
1,860 (2) |
Unknown (14) |
|
Number of Child Labor Violations Found |
0 (2) |
Unknown (14) |
|
Number of Child Labor Violations for Which Penalties Were Imposed |
N/A (2) |
Unknown (14) |
|
Number of Child Labor Penalties Imposed that Were Collected |
N/A (2) |
Unknown (14) |
|
Routine Inspections Conducted |
Yes (2) |
Unknown (14) |
|
Routine Inspections Targeted |
Yes (2) |
Unknown (14) |
|
Unannounced Inspections Permitted |
Yes (50) |
Yes (50) |
|
Unannounced Inspections Conducted |
Yes (2) |
Yes (14) |
|
Complaint Mechanism Exists |
Yes (2) |
Yes (14) |
|
Reciprocal Referral Mechanism Exists Between Labor Authorities and Social Services |
Yes (2) |
Yes (14) |
The government did not make available information about its labor law enforcement efforts for inclusion in this report. (14) According to reporting from a major international organization, the government conducted 2,603 inspections in 2021; however, separate reporting from a trade union indicates that labor inspections have been significantly curtailed as a result of pandemic restrictions. (14,61,62)
As of 2020, the labor inspectorate employed 120 inspectors, which is likely insufficient for the size of Zimbabwe’s workforce of approximately 7.4 million workers. According to the ILO’s technical advice of a ratio approaching 1 inspector for every 15,000 workers in developing economies, Zimbabwe would need to employ about 494 labor inspectors. (14,63,64) The limited number of inspectors and a lack of resources, such as available vehicles, likely hinder the labor inspectorate's ability to conduct child labor investigations and adequately monitor rural farms at which child labor occurs. (2,58) Furthermore, labor inspectors also oversee arbitration and conciliation, a responsibility that compromises their ability to conduct onsite investigations to address child labor. (58)
Criminal Law Enforcement
In 2021, criminal law enforcement agencies in Zimbabwe took actions to address child labor (Table 7). However, gaps exist within the operations of the MPSLSW that may hinder adequate criminal and labor law enforcement, including lack of information on law enforcement efforts.
|
Overview of Criminal Law Enforcement |
2020 |
2021 |
|---|---|---|
|
Initial Training for New Criminal Investigators |
Unknown (2) |
Unknown (14) |
|
Training on New Laws Related to the Worst Forms of Child Labor |
N/A (2) |
Unknown (14) |
|
Refresher Courses Provided |
Unknown (2) |
Yes (65) |
|
Number of Investigations |
Unknown (2) |
Unknown (14) |
|
Number of Violations Found |
Unknown (2) |
Unknown (14) |
|
Number of Prosecutions Initiated |
Unknown (2) |
Unknown (14) |
|
Number of Convictions |
Unknown (2) |
Unknown (14) |
|
Imposed Penalties for Violations Related to the Worst Forms of Child Labor |
Unknown (2) |
Unknown (14) |
|
Reciprocal Referral Mechanism Exists Between Criminal Authorities and Social Services |
Yes (2) |
Yes (14) |
The government did not provide information on its criminal law enforcement efforts related to the worst forms of child labor for inclusion in this report. (14) During the reporting period the government undertook seven human trafficking investigations, related to commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor, resulting in four new criminal prosecutions and one conviction. However, research was not able to verify the ages of the victims and whether these cases were related to the worst forms of child labor. (65) More than 500 police officers, 10 immigration officers, and 20 members of the Anti-Trafficking Interministerial Committee participated in training on various topics including the international and national legal framework, essential elements of trafficking in persons, techniques for interviewing victims, differences between human trafficking and smuggling, the national referral mechanism, and push and pull factors that contribute to human trafficking. (65)
The government has established mechanisms to coordinate its efforts to address child labor (Table 8). However, gaps exist that hinder the effective coordination of efforts to address child labor, including a lack of resources.
|
Coordinating Body |
Role & Description |
|---|---|
|
National Steering Committee to Address the Worst Forms of Child Labor |
Leads government coordination to address the worst forms of child labor. Chaired by MPSLSW and includes the Ministries of Health and Child Care; Primary and Secondary Education; and Youth Development, Indigenization, and Economic Empowerment. Also includes international organizations and civil society groups, such as workers’ and employers’ organizations. (2) Research could not determine whether the National Steering Committee to Address the Worst Forms of Child Labor was active during the reporting period. (14) |
|
Ministry-Level Committee on Children’s Issues |
Coordinates government ministries’ efforts related to children’s issues, including child labor. Includes MPSLSW and the Ministries of Education; Women’s Affairs; and Youth Development, Indigenization and Economic Empowerment. (16) Includes Child Protection Committees, which operate at the village, ward, district, provincial, and national levels, to discuss issues affecting children, including child labor. (66) Research could not determine whether the Ministry-Level Committee on Children’s Issues was active during the reporting period; community-level committees likely remained in place, however, operated at varying levels of performance due to gaps in resources and capacity, especially in rural areas. (14) |
|
Anti-Trafficking Inter-Ministerial Committee |
Coordinates actions to prevent and eliminate human trafficking, including the implementation of the Trafficking in Persons National Plan of Action (NAPLAC). (30) Comprises the Ministries of Labor and Social Services, Women’s Affairs, Home Affairs, Health and Child Welfare, Information and Publicity, Education, Local Government, and Foreign Affairs; the National Prosecuting Authority; the Office of the Registrar General; the Department of Immigration; the Zimbabwe Republic Police; and the Financial Intelligence Unit. (65) The Anti-Trafficking Inter-Ministerial Committee met twice during the reporting period, participating in trainings and reviewing NAPLAC. (65) |
|
National Task Force on Street Children |
Outlines strategies to address child labor, including feeding street children at drop-in centers, reuniting children with their families, and offering counseling sessions. Chaired by MPSLSW and includes NGOs that work on street children’s issues. (67) Also includes the Ministry of Home Affairs, represented by the Zimbabwe Republic Police. (66) Research could not determine whether the National Task Force on Street Children was active during the reporting period. (14) |
A lack of funding hinders coordinating bodies from carrying out their mandates. (2)
The government has established policies related to child labor (Table 9). However, policy gaps exist that hinder efforts to address child labor, including lack of implementation of key policies.
|
Policy |
Description |
|---|---|
|
National Action Plan to Combat Child Labor |
Promotes understanding of child labor issues and creates an entity to coordinate responses to the findings. Consists of three focus areas: education assistance, poverty assistance through a cash transfer scheme, and health assistance. (2) Research was unable to determine whether activities were undertaken to implement the National Action Plan to Combat Child Labor during the reporting period. |
|
Trafficking in Persons National Plan of Action (NAPLAC) (2019–2021) |
Aims to implement the Palermo Protocol through the development of strategies to address human trafficking, with an emphasis on prevention, protection, prosecution, and partnership. (68) During the reporting period, the government drafted a TIP Amendment Bill; however it had to restart the process because of a procedural error. (14) |
|
Zimbabwe UN Sustainable Development Assistance Cooperation Framework (2022–2026)† |
UN and Zimbabwe cooperative agreement to advance economic and sustainable development goals. Prioritizes four core areas: equitable and quality social services for girls and other vulnerable groups; strengthening of health and food security; inclusive and sustainable economic growth, including decent work opportunities; and promoting accountable institutions and systems of rule of law, human rights, and access to justice. (69) Prioritizes school enrollment as an indicator. (69) |
† Policy was approved during the reporting period.
‡ The government had other social programs that may have included the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor. (70)
In 2021, the government funded and participated in programs that may contribute to eliminating or preventing child labor (Table 10). However, gaps exist in these social programs, including the inadequacy of programs to address the full scope of the problem.
|
Program |
Description |
|---|---|
|
Harmonized Social Cash Transfer† |
Government-funded unconditional cash transfer program, with support from UNICEF, to assist labor-constrained and food-insecure households to avert risk-coping strategies, such as child labor. (2,71) As of 2021, the Harmonized Social Cash Transfer Program covered 55,000 households across 20 districts. (14) |
|
Basic Education Assistance Module† |
Government program, with support by the UK Foreign Commonwealth and Development Office, that provides basic financial assistance to families for education costs, such as tuition and examination fees. Aims to keep children in school and to enroll children who lack access to school because of economic hardship. (16) Allocated $25 million and covered tuition, examination fees, and levies for 859,000 children in 2021, a slight decrease from 950,000 children in 2020. (14,72) |
|
Mobile Birth Registration Program† |
Government mobile birth registration program, with support from UNICEF and implemented by the Office of the Registrar General and some local governments, to ensure that citizens receive identity documents, including birth certificates. (47,73) Fields mobile teams are located in every district in the country. (74) During the reporting period, the government, with the support of UNICEF, provided registration assistance to at least 6,645 children under age 16 in areas effected by Cyclone Idai in 2019 and flooding in 2017. (62) UNICEF funding for the Mobile Birth Registration Program ended in 2021. (62) |
|
Child Protection Fund for the National Action Plan for Orphans and Vulnerable Children (2016–2022) |
UNICEF Child Protection Fund program, supported by the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, which focuses on equity and access to quality education for children and provides child protection services. Provided cash assistance for families to keep children in school. (70,75) In 2021, UNICEF had provided psychosocial support activities, reaching 132,243 children, including children with disabilities and support for parents and caregivers. (62) |
|
Determined, Resilient, Empowered, AIDS-free, Mentored, and Safe (DREAMS) |
$106 million, U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief/USAID-funded country program that aims to reduce rates of HIV among adolescent girls and young women, including girls vulnerable to commercial sexual exploitation. (76,77) In 2021, the DREAMS program provided support to 244,046 adolescent girls and young women and expanded services from 6 to 16 districts. In addition, 20, 678 adolescent girls and young women benefited from economic strengthening interventions to improve economic security and earning capacity. Finally, 438,669 orphans and vulnerable children and their families received services through USAID programming during the reporting period. (62) |
† Program is funded by the Government of Zimbabwe.
Although Zimbabwe has programs that target child labor, the scope of these programs is insufficient to fully address the extent of the problem, especially child labor in agriculture, mining, and commercial sexual exploitation. Research found problems with the distribution of social support benefits because structures within the ruling party control the allocation of food, allowances, seeds, and other forms of assistance, which may result in the exclusion of vulnerable families from assistance programs. (2,14)
Based on the reporting above, suggested actions are identified that would advance the elimination of child labor in Zimbabwe (Table 11).
|
Area |
Suggested Action |
Year(s) Suggested |
|---|---|---|
|
Legal Framework |
Ensure that the law criminally prohibits the recruitment of children under age 18 by non-state armed groups. |
2016 – 2021 |
|
Establish, by law, free basic education. |
2009 – 2021 |
|
|
Ensure that laws prohibiting forced labor criminalize slavery. |
2021 |
|
|
Enforcement |
Establish a mechanism to assess civil penalties for child labor violations. |
2017 – 2021 |
|
Increase the number of labor inspectors to meet the ILO’s technical advice. |
2016 – 2021 |
|
|
Ensure that the labor inspectorate has sufficient financial and human resources to address labor violations and enforce minimum age protections in all sectors, including agriculture. |
2017 – 2021 |
|
|
Publish information on the government's labor law enforcement efforts. |
2021 |
|
|
Publish information on the government's criminal law enforcement efforts. |
2015 – 2021 |
|
|
Coordination |
Ensure that all coordinating bodies are able to carry out their intended mandates. |
2016 – 2021 |
|
Ensure that all Child Protection Committees, including those in rural areas, have adequate resources to operate according to their intended mandates. |
2021 |
|
|
Government Policies |
Ensure that activities are undertaken to implement the National Action Plan to Combat Child Labor and publish results from activities implemented during the reporting period. |
2010 – 2021 |
|
Social Programs |
Cease the practice of interfering with civil society and work organizations seeking to investigate and respond to issues of child labor, and hold government and party officials engaging in such practices accountable. |
2021 |
|
Improve access to secondary school by ensuring that all children are registered at birth and by removing identity documentation requirements to take national exams. |
2014 – 2021 |
|
|
Enhance efforts to make education accessible to all children, including children living in rural areas, by improving access to water and hygiene facilities within schools, reducing travel distances to schools, and increasing the number of teachers. |
2016 – 2021 |
|
|
Expand existing social programs to address child labor, especially child labor in agriculture, commercial sexual exploitation, and mining. |
2010 – 2021 |
|
|
Improve systems for the distribution of social support benefits to ensure that allocations reach vulnerable households that are most in need of the benefits. |
2020 – 2021 |
- Murungweni, Maxim. Organisation steps up fight against sexual exploitation of children. The Herald, September 30, 2017.
http://www.herald.co.zw/organisation-steps-up-fight-against-sexual-exploitation-of-children/ - U.S. Embassy- Harare. Reporting. January 13, 2021.
- UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Gross intake ratio to the last grade of primary education, both sexes (%). Accessed March 3, 2022. For more information, please see “Children’s Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions” in the Reference Materials section of this report.
http://data.uis.unesco.org/ - ILO. Analysis of Child Economic Activity and School Attendance Statistics from National Household or Child Labor Surveys. Original data from Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 6 (MICS 6), 2018. Analysis received March 2022. For more information, please see “Children’s Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions” in the Reference Materials section of this report.
- NewsDay. The sad story of Arda Transau villagers. January 16, 2017.
https://www.newsday.co.zw/2017/01/sad-story-arda-transau-villagers/ - Bara, Energy. Zimbabwe fails to deal with child labour scourge. African Independent. August 11, 2017. Source on file.
- Kafe, Emmanuel. Child labour thrives in farms? The Sunday Mail, January 15, 2017.
http://www.sundaymail.co.zw/child-labour-thrives-in-farms/ - World Atlas. Worst Countries for Child Labor. April 25, 2017. Source on file.
- Chingono, Nyasha. $1 a Week: The bitter poverty of child sugarcane workers in Zimbabwe. The Guardian. November 19, 2020.
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/nov/19/the-bitter-poverty-of-child-sugarcane-workers-in-zimbabwe - ILO Committee of Experts. Individual Observation concerning Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138) Zimbabwe (ratification: 2000). Published 2021.
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:4051483 - Mangwaya, Miriam. Spike in child labour jolts govt. News Day. August 27, 2021.
https://www.newsday.co.zw/2021/08/spike-in-child-labour-cases-jolts-govt/ - Magoronga, Michael. Of Gokwe’s cotton, strange stories and child marriages. The Chronicle. July 31, 2021.
https://www.chronicle.co.zw/of-gokwes-cotton-strange-stories-and-child-marriages/ - Mangwaya, Miriam. COVID-induced poverty worsens child labour. The Standard. August 1, 2021.
https://www.thestandard.co.zw/2021/08/01/covid-induced-poverty-worsens-child-labour/ - U.S. Embassy- Harare. Reporting. January 14, 2022.
- Sunday Mail. Child labour rampant in fishing industry. June 3, 2018.
https://www.sundaymail.co.zw/child-labour-rampant-in-fishing-industry - U.S. Embassy- Harare. Reporting. January 15, 2020.
- Mugabi, Samuel. Child labour on the rise in mines, say officials. New Vision, December 15, 2020. Source on file.
- Zimbabwe Environmental Law Association. Impact of COVID-19 Response Mechanisms on Children in Selected Gold and Diamond Mining Communities in Zimbabwe. October 12, 2020.
http://www.zela.org/download/impact-of-covid-19-response-mechanisms-on-children-in-selected-gold-and-diamond-mining-communities-in-zimbabwe-2/ - Chingono, Nyasha. 'I need money for school': The children forced to pan for gold in Zimbabwe. The Guardian. November 13, 2020.
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/nov/13/i-need-money-for-school-the-children-forced-to-pan-for-gold-in-zimbabwe - ILO Committee of Experts. Individual Observation concerning Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182) Zimbabwe (ratification: 2000). Published 2021.
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:4051487 - NGO official. Interview with USDOL official. January 21, 2022.
- Cite. Illegal brick moulders exploit children. September 26, 2020.
https://cite.org.zw/illegal-brick-moulders-exploit-children/ - Mananavire, Bridget. Nearly 5,000 children live on streets. DailyNews Live, March 20, 2017.
https://bettercarenetwork.org/sites/default/files/Nearly.pdf - Muradzikwa, Sam. Child poverty fuelling child labour worldwide. The Chronicle, June 14, 2017.
http://www.chronicle.co.zw/child-poverty-fuelling-child-labour-worldwide/ - The Herald. Zimbabwe: A child rescued is a child saved. March 22, 2017.
http://allafrica.com/stories/201703220664.html - New Zimbabwe. Over 20k Zim children turn to vending as economy screams. August 14, 2020.
https://www.newzimbabwe.com/over-20k.-children-turn-to-vending-as-economy-screams/ - Bulawayo 24 News. Zimbabwe's corridors of sexual horror. March 16, 2017.
http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-opinion-sc-columnist-byo-106443.html - NewsDay. Sex exploitation of teenage girls rife. March 4, 2017.
https://www.newsday.co.zw/2017/03/sex-exploitation-teenage-girls-rife/ - Government of Zimbabwe. Ministerial Statement, Recorded Commercial Child Sexual Exploitation in Harare. October 4, 2017.
http://veritaszim.net/node/2220 - U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report- 2021: Zimbabwe. Washington, D.C. July 1, 2021.
https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-trafficking-in-persons-report/zimbabwe/ - U.S. Embassy- Harare. Reporting. February 5, 2020.
- BBC News. Zimbabwe Country Profile. February 15, 2018.
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https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/12/1052621 - U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report- 2019: Zimbabwe. Washington, DC, June 2019.
https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/2019-Trafficking-in-Persons-Report.pdf - Saunyama, Jairos. Living conditions fuel child sexual exploitation in Hopley. NewsDay. August 19, 2017.
https://www.newsday.co.zw/2017/08/living-conditions-fuel-child-sexual-exploitation-hopley/ - Human Rights Watch. A Bitter Harvest: Child Labor and Human Rights Abuses on Tobacco Farms in Zimbabwe. April 2018.
https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/zimbabwe0418_web_2.pdf - Chitagu, Tatenda. Rampant child labour sours Lowveld’s sugarcane industry. The Standard. June 30, 2019.
https://www.thestandard.co.zw/2019/06/30/rampant-child-labour-sours-lowvelds-sugarcane-industry/ - Karombo, Tawanda. Child prostitution in Zimbabwe spikes amid two other crises: COVID-19 and hunger. America Magazine. July 30, 2020.
https://www.americamagazine.org/politics-society/2020/07/30/child-prostitution-zimbabwe-spikes-amid-two-other-crises-covid-19-and - Gwenzi, Getrude Dadirai. More children in Zimbabwe are working to survive: What's needed. The Conversation. November 11, 2020.
https://theconversation.com/more-children-in-zimbabwe-are-working-to-survive-whats-needed-149033 - AllAfrica. Zimbabwe. Minister linked to child labour storm - Zanu-PF activists block probe at two white-owned farms March 15, 2022.
https://allafrica.com/stories/202203150428.html?utm_campaign=daily-headlines&utm_medium=email&utm_source=newsletter&utm_content=aans-view-link - U.S. Embassy-Harare official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. March 22, 2022.
- Government of Zimbabwe. Education Act, Chapter 25:04. Enacted: 2001.
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http://mopse.co.zw/sites/default/files/public/downloads/EDUCATION AMENDMENT ACT, 2019 [ Act 15-2019].pdf - U.S Embassy- Harare official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. February 10, 2021.
- Amnesty International Zimbabwe: Statelessness crisis traps hundreds of thousands in limbo April 16. 2021.
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/04/zimbabwe-statelessness-crisis-traps-hundreds-of-thousands-in-limbo/#:~:text=5:49 am-,Zimbabwe: Statelessness crisis traps hundreds of thousands in limbo,today in a new report. - The Economist. Old laws and red tape leave thousands stateless in Zimbabwe. 2021.
https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2021/04/22/old-laws-and-red-tape-leave-thousands-stateless-in-zimbabwe - U.S Embassy- Harare official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. March 11, 2020.
- Government of Zimbabwe. Births and Deaths Registration Act. Enacted: 1985.
https://unstats.un.org/unsd/vitalstatkb/KnowledgebaseArticle50177.aspx - Government of Zimbabwe. Children's Act (Act 22 of 1971 as amended through Act 14 of 2002). Enacted: 1972.
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/76958/88827/F-860336063/ZWE76958.pdf - Government of Zimbabwe. Labour Act, Chapter 28:01. Enacted: 1985, copy 2019. Source on file.
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- Government of Zimbabwe. Constitution of Zimbabwe. Enacted: May 6, 2015.
https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared Documents/ZWE/INT_CEDAW_ADR_ZWE_33226_E.pdf - Government of Zimbabwe. Trafficking in Persons Act. Enacted: 2014.
https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/834986?ln=en - Government of Zimbabwe. Criminal Law Act of 2004.
https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4c45b64c2.pdf - Government of Zimbabwe. International Humanitarian Law: National Implementation. National Service Act: Acts 19/1979, 22/2001. Accessed April 4, 2019.
https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl-nat.nsf/implementingLaws.xsp?documentId=F66BE5AEF3C149ABC125771B005D03B5&action=OpenDocument - Coltart, David. Education Fact Sheet, Zimbabwe. SACMEQ. Accessed December 3, 2020. Source on file.
- Government of Zimbabwe. Labour Amendment Bill, 2021, H.B. 14. 2021.
http://www.veritaszim.net/node/5355 - ILO CEACR. Individual Direct Request concerning Labor Inspection Convention, 1947 (No. 81) Zimbabwe (ratification: 1993) and Labor Inspection (Agriculture) Convention, 1969 (No. 129) Zimbabwe (ratification: 1993) Published: 2017
http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:3298230 - Nhimba, Nicholas K. Zimbabwe: NECs play vital role in industrial harmony. The Herald, September 5, 2018.
https://allafrica.com/stories/201809050173.html - Government of Zimbabwe. Labour Relations Amendment Act, 2002, Chapter 28:01 Part IV:11. Enacted: 2002. Source on file.
- U.S. Embassy- Harare official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. March 15, 2022.
- U.S. Embassy- Harare official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. March 4, 2022.
- ILO. ILO modelled estimates and projections (ILOEST) – Population and labour force. Accessed February 7, 2022. Labor force data is modelled on a combination of demographic and economic explanatory variables by the ILO. Please see “Labor Law Enforcement: Sources and Definitions” in the Reference Materials section of this report.
https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/ - UN. World Economic Situation and Prospects. 2021 Statistical Annex. New York, 2021.
https://www.un-ilibrary.org/content/books/9789210054980 - U.S. Embassy- Harare. Reporting. February 4, 2022.
- U.S. Embassy- Harare. Reporting. March 7, 2018.
- U.S. Embassy- Harare official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. April 14, 2015.
- Government of Zimbabwe. The Zimbabwe Trafficking in Persons National Plan of Action 2019–2021. 2019.
https://www.unodc.org/documents/southernafrica//Publications/CriminalJusticeIntegrity/TraffickinginPersons/2019_to_2021_Final_NAPLAC_.pdf - Government of Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe United Nations Sustainable Development Cooperative Framework. 2022-206 2021.
https://zimbabwe.un.org/en/152534-2022-2026-zimbabwe-un-sustainable-development-cooperation-framework - UNICEF. UNICEF 2018 Social Protection Budget Brief. April 2018.
https://www.unicef.org/esa/media/2371/file/UNICEF-Zimbabwe-2018-Social-Protection-Budget-Brief.pdf - UNICEF. Zimbabwe’s Cash Transfer Programme: the Challenges of a Promising Programme. 2017.
https://transfer.cpc.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Zimbabwes-cash-transfer-programme_The-challenges-of-a-promising-programme_2017-Brief.pdf - Zhkata, Ivan. Govt to pay school fees for 1.5 million children. The Herald. November 30, 2021.
https://www.herald.co.zw/govt-to-pay-school-fees-for-15-million-children/ - U.S. Embassy- Harare official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. May 18, 2018.
- U.S. Embassy- Harare. Reporting. February 28, 2019.
- UK Department for International Development. Child Protection Fund Phase II for the National Action Plan for Orphans and other Vulnerable Children (CPF II for NAP) - Zimbabwe. December 12, 2018.
https://devtracker.fcdo.gov.uk/projects/GB-1-204831/documents - USAID. DREAMS: Partnership to Reduce HIV/AIDS in Adolescent Girls and Young Women. March 7, 2018.
https://www.usaid.gov/global-health/health-areas/hiv-and-aids/technical-areas/dreams - U.S. Department of State. Zimbabwe: Dreams Overview (FY 2016–2021). Washington, D.C. 2020.
https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/ZIMBABWE_DREAMS-Fact-Sheet-2020.pdf
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