Child Labor and Forced Labor Reports
Zambia
Moderate Advancement
In 2021, Zambia made moderate advancement in efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labor. The government significantly increased the number of labor inspectors to 240, from 160 the previous year. The government also launched its second National Action Plan for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor, allocated funding to hire 22,000 schoolteachers, and collected updated data on the number of children in child labor and in hazardous work. However, children in Zambia are subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking, and forced labor in agriculture. The Education Act does not specify a compulsory education age, and human trafficking laws do not meet international standards because they require threats, the use of force, or coercion to establish the crime of child trafficking. In addition, labor inspectors do not routinely inspect non-registered businesses in which child labor is known to occur.
Children in Zambia are subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking, and forced labor in agriculture. (1,2) Table 1 provides key indicators on children's work and education in Zambia.
|
Children |
Age |
Percent |
|---|---|---|
|
Working (% and population) |
5 to 14 |
28.1 (992,722) |
|
Working children by sector |
5 to 14 |
|
|
Agriculture |
91.8 |
|
|
Industry |
1.2 |
|
|
Services |
7.0 |
|
|
Attending School (%) |
5 to 14 |
65.2 |
|
Combining Work and School (%) |
7 to 14 |
27.6 |
|
Primary Completion Rate (%) |
80.0 |
Source for primary completion rate: Data from 2013, published by UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2022. (3)
Source for all other data: International Labor Organization’s Analysis of Statistics from the Labour Force Survey (LFS), 2008. (4)
Based on a review of available information, Table 2 provides an overview of children's work by sector and activity.
|
Sector/Industry |
Activity |
|---|---|
|
Agriculture |
Work in the production of cotton,† tobacco,† and other cash crops (2,5,6) |
|
Raising and herding† cattle (2,5) |
|
|
Fishing† (2,7,8) |
|
|
Production of charcoal† (9) |
|
|
Forestry, including loading of timber (2,10) |
|
|
Industry |
Mining of tin, chrome, gold, ore, and gems, including manganese (2,7,8,11,12) |
|
Work in quarries, including carrying heavy loads† and crushing stones† (2,7) |
|
|
Services |
Domestic work (2,7) |
|
Street work, including begging and vending (2,7,8) |
|
|
Garbage disposal (2) |
|
|
Categorical Worst Forms of Child Labor‡ |
Commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking (1,13) |
|
Forced labor in agriculture, herding, construction, domestic work, mining, small businesses, and textile production (1,11,13) |
|
|
Forced begging (1) |
† Determined by national law or regulation as hazardous and, as such, relevant to Article 3(d) of ILO C. 182.
‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.
Child labor in Zambia is most prevalent in the agricultural sector and sometimes involves forced labor. (1,2,14) Traffickers exploit children from rural areas in Zambia to cities for domestic work and to rural areas for agriculture. (1) Sources reported the exploitation of children for cattle herding, which sometimes involves parents repaying debts by sending children, particularly young boys, to work as cattle herders for the people to whom they are indebted. (2) Orphans, street children, children with disabilities, and children from poor households are particularly vulnerable to child trafficking. (1,8,15) In addition, traffickers exploit children from neighboring countries for forced labor and commercial sexual exploitation. (16)
Illegal mining syndicates, called jerabo gangs, in the Copperbelt province employ children for mining activities, including forcing children to load trucks with stolen copper ore. (1,17) Commercial sexual exploitation of children is common, particularly along Zambia's borders and transit corridors. (1,13) Research indicates that school closures resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic have increased the vulnerability of children to the worst forms of child labor, including forced labor and commercial sexual exploitation. (1,13) During the reporting period, the government collected data on child work as part of its 2021 Labor Force Survey, which included measurements of the number of children engaged in paid and unpaid work, the prevalence of child labor, the number of children engaged in hazardous work, and variances in child labor prevalence based on geographical location, school attendance, sex, age group, and other factors. (2)
Long distances to schools, particularly in rural areas, an insufficient number of teachers and classrooms, and costs of learning materials are barriers to education. (2,18,19) The inability to access birth certificates and the high prevalence of early marriage of girls increase the vulnerability of children to child labor; children without birth certificates are not able to enroll in school, and once girls marry, they sometimes leave school before reaching the minimum working age and engage in work outside the household. (2,15,20,21)
Zambia has ratified most key international conventions concerning child labor (Table 3).
|
Convention |
Ratification |
|---|---|
|
ILO C. 138, Minimum Age |
✓ |
|
ILO C. 182, Worst Forms of Child Labor |
✓ |
|
UN CRC |
✓ |
|
UN CRC Optional Protocol on Armed Conflict |
|
|
UN CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography |
|
|
Palermo Protocol on Trafficking in Persons |
✓ |
The government has established laws and regulations related to child labor (Table 4). However, gaps exist in Zambia’s legal framework to adequately protect children from the worst forms of child labor, including an undefined age range for compulsory education.
|
Standard |
Meets International Standards |
Age |
Legislation |
|---|---|---|---|
|
Minimum Age for Work |
Yes |
15 |
Article 24 of the Constitution; Articles 16 and 81 of the Employment Code Act (22,23) |
|
Minimum Age for Hazardous Work |
Yes |
19 |
Article 83 of the Employment Code Act (23) |
|
Identification of Hazardous Occupations or Activities Prohibited for Children |
Yes |
Prohibition of Employment of Young Persons and Children (Hazardous Labor) Order; Section 137(2)(n) of the Employment Code Act (23-25) |
|
|
Prohibition of Forced Labor |
Yes |
Articles 14 and 24 of the Constitution; Articles 143, 261, and 263 of the Penal Code; Article 3 of the Anti-Human Trafficking Act; Section 8 of the Employment Code Act (22,23,26,27) |
|
|
Prohibition of Child Trafficking |
No |
Article 17 of Amendment to the Constitution; Article 143 of the Penal Code; Articles 2 and 3 (1-4) of the Anti-Human Trafficking Act; Sections 80 and 83 of the Employment Code Act (22,23,26,27) |
|
|
Prohibition of Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children |
Yes |
Articles 143 and 144 of the Penal Code; Sections 80 and 83 of the Employment Code Act (23,27) |
|
|
Prohibition of Using Children in Illicit Activities |
Yes |
Sections 80 and 83 of the Employment Code Act (23) |
|
|
Minimum Age for Voluntary State Military Recruitment |
Yes |
18 |
Article 14 of the Defense Act (28) |
|
Prohibition of Compulsory Recruitment of Children by (State) Military |
N/A* |
||
|
Prohibition of Military Recruitment by Non-state Armed Groups |
Yes |
Article 3 of the Anti-Human Trafficking Act; Articles 80 and 83 of the Employment Code Act (23,26) |
|
|
Compulsory Education Age |
No |
Article 16 and 17 of the Education Act (29) |
|
|
Free Public Education |
Yes |
Article 15 of the Education Act (29) |
* Country has no conscription (30)
The law establishes a light work framework for employment of children ages 13 to 15 but has not identified permitted light work activities. (23,31) Moreover, human trafficking provisions remain inconsistent with international standards because they require demonstration of threats, force, intimidation, or other forms of coercion to constitute a child trafficking offense. (26)
The Education Act requires that the government provide free education up to the ninth grade and stipulates that education is compulsory for children of "school-going age." The Act, however, does not set a specific age for which education is compulsory or define "school-going age," which may allow children to leave school before they are legally able to work and thereby increase their vulnerability to the worst forms of child labor. (32)
The government has established institutional mechanisms for the enforcement of laws and regulations on child labor (Table 5). However, gaps exist within the operations of enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate enforcement of their child labor laws.
|
Organization/Agency |
Role |
|---|---|
|
Ministry of Labor and Social Security (MLSS) |
Implements, enforces, and regulates child labor laws. Advises other government agencies on child labor issues and coordinates government efforts to prevent child labor through its Child Labor Unit (CLU). The CLU, which falls under the labor inspectorate, carries out inspections related to child labor. (2,33) |
|
Ministry of Home Affairs |
Enforces criminal laws against human trafficking, child commercial exploitation, use of children as soldiers, and use of children in illegal activities through its Immigration Department and Drug Enforcement Commission. (2) |
|
Zambia Police Service |
Collaborates with the Ministry of Justice to investigate and prosecute child labor cases. (2) Handles the enforcement of laws against human trafficking, commercial sexual exploitation, and the use of children in illicit activities through its Child Protection and Victim Support units. (2,34) Works with immigration officials and local officials to respond to child trafficking, enforce child labor laws, and remove vulnerable children from the streets, placing them into families, foster homes, or in safe homes. (2) |
|
Ministry of Justice |
Prosecutes criminal law enforcement cases related to the worst forms of child labor through its Office of the Prosecutor. (2) |
|
Ministry of Community Development and Social Services |
Provides social services to survivors of human trafficking or sexual abuse. Operates one government shelter in Luapula province. (1) |
Labor Law Enforcement
In 2021, labor law enforcement agencies in Zambia took actions to address child labor (Table 6). However, gaps exist within the operations of the Ministry of Labor and Social Security (MLSS) that may hinder adequate enforcement of child labor laws, including insufficient financial resources.
|
Overview of Labor Law Enforcement |
2020 |
2021 |
|---|---|---|
|
Labor Inspectorate Funding |
$281,520 (10) |
$26,000 (2) |
|
Number of Labor Inspectors |
160 (10) |
240 (2) |
|
Mechanism to Assess Civil Penalties |
Yes (23) |
Yes (23) |
|
Initial Training for New Labor Inspectors |
Yes (10) |
No (2) |
|
Training on New Laws Related to Child Labor |
Yes (10) |
N/A (2) |
|
Refresher Courses Provided |
Yes (10) |
No (2) |
|
Number of Labor Inspections Conducted |
630 (10) |
1,800 (2) |
|
Number Conducted at Worksite |
630 (10) |
1,800 (2) |
|
Number of Child Labor Violations Found |
1 (10) |
0 (35) |
|
Number of Child Labor Violations for Which Penalties Were Imposed |
1 (10) |
0 (35) |
|
Number of Child Labor Penalties Imposed that Were Collected |
1 (10) |
0 (35) |
|
Routine Inspections Conducted |
Yes (10) |
Yes (2) |
|
Routine Inspections Targeted |
Yes (10) |
Yes (2) |
|
Unannounced Inspections Permitted |
Yes (23) |
Yes (23) |
|
Unannounced Inspections Conducted |
Yes (10) |
Yes (2) |
|
Complaint Mechanism Exists |
Yes (10) |
Yes (2) |
|
Reciprocal Referral Mechanism Exists Between Labor Authorities and Social Services |
Yes (10) |
Yes (2) |
In 2021, the government increased the size of its labor inspectorate to 240 inspectors and nearly tripled the number of labor inspections from 630, in 2020, to 1,800. (2) The government reported a budgetary allocation of $26,000 in 2021, a significant reduction from 2020; however, this figure is not inclusive of budget for personnel, including labor inspectors. (2) The financial resources allocated to the labor inspectorate were likely insufficient to enforce laws related to child labor. (10,36) The MLSS has stated that inadequate resources, including an insufficient budget, limited office space, inadequate training, and a lack of transportation and fuel have prevented it from adequately conducting inspections countrywide. (2,37-39)
The MLSS generally conducts planned labor inspections in registered private institutions only; inspections of unregistered institutions, including at artisanal mining sites, farms, and private homes in which child labor is most common, primarily occur in response to complaints. (37,40,41) The MLSS is conducting community sensitization campaigns and coordinating with local police to build public understanding of the labor inspectorate's role and enforcement mandates to facilitate more inspections of private and unregistered institutions. (41)
Criminal Law Enforcement
In 2021, criminal law enforcement agencies in Zambia took actions to address child labor (Table 7). However, gaps exist within criminal enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate criminal law enforcement, including insufficient financial resources.
|
Overview of Criminal Law Enforcement |
2020 |
2021 |
|---|---|---|
|
Initial Training for New Criminal Investigators |
No (10) |
Unknown (2) |
|
Training on New Laws Related to the Worst Forms of Child Labor |
N/A (10) |
N/A (2) |
|
Refresher Courses Provided |
No (10) |
Yes (42) |
|
Number of Investigations |
Unknown (10) |
Unknown (2) |
|
Number of Violations Found |
Unknown (10) |
17 (42) |
|
Number of Prosecutions Initiated |
4 (10,13) |
3 (42) |
|
Number of Convictions |
Unknown (10) |
Unknown (2) |
|
Imposed Penalties for Violations Related to the Worst Forms of Child Labor |
Unknown (10) |
Unknown (2) |
|
Reciprocal Referral Mechanism Exists Between Criminal Authorities and Social Services |
Yes (10) |
Yes (2) |
The government did not provide complete information on its criminal law enforcement efforts, including training of new criminal law enforcement investigators, the number of investigations and convictions, and whether it imposed penalties, related to the worst forms of child labor. (2) During the reporting period, criminal law enforcement authorities rescued 17 children from the Democratic Republic of the Congo who were being trafficked to the Copperbelt region. In addition, at least three defendants were prosecuted for criminal offenses related to the commercial sexual exploitation of children. (42) However, research could not determine whether there were additional criminal law enforcement efforts related to the worst forms of child labor in 2021. The government, with support from UNICEF, trained 75 immigration and police officers from the Eastern, Southern, and Western Provinces of Zambia, on concepts related to the trafficking of children and handling of vulnerable persons. (42)
Law enforcement agencies do not have sufficient financial and human resources to address human trafficking, and standard operating procedures to screen and identify victims remain limited. (1)
The government has established mechanisms to coordinate its efforts to address child labor (Table 8). However, gaps exist that hinder the effective coordination of efforts to address child labor, including efficacy in accomplishing mandates.
|
Coordinating Body |
Role & Description |
|---|---|
|
National Steering Committee on Child Labor |
Advises and oversees child labor matters, including implementation of hazardous work regulations. Chaired by MLSS and comprises government representatives, employers, trade unions, and civil society members. The National Steering Committee on Child Labor was not active in 2021. (2) |
|
District Child Labor Committees (DCLCs) |
Respond to child labor complaints at the district level, file complaints to MLSS, and serve as the main referral mechanism for social welfare services in collaboration with CLU of MLSS. (2) Comprises the Zambia Police Service; MLSS; the Ministry of Community Development, Mother, and Child Health; and civil society stakeholders. (11) Coordinate with Community Child Labor Committees, which operate at the community level to raise awareness and promote mobilization against child labor. DCLCs were active during the reporting period and continued to monitor matters of child labor at the local level and hold sensitization meetings and trainings. (2) |
|
National Coordinating Committee for Children |
Coordinates implementation of the National Child Policy and government responses to child protection issues, including child trafficking, sexual exploitation of children, and child labor. Led by the Ministry of Youth, Sport, and Child Development (MYSCD) in coordination with DCLCs that operate in selected districts. (2) Research indicates that the National Coordinating Committee for Children met late in 2021 with a focus on implementation of the National Child Safeguard Framework. (35) |
|
Interministerial Committee on Anti-Human Trafficking |
Shares information and coordinates efforts in addressing human trafficking issues. Chaired by the Ministry of Home Affairs and includes representation from MLSS, the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Community Development and Social Services, the Ministry of Local Government, MYSCD, the Zambia Police Service, the Department of Immigration, IOM, and a number of NGOs. (2) The Interministerial Committee on Anti-Human Trafficking met six times during the reporting period, working on an updated national action plan for trafficking in persons, coordinating trainings, and developing a new national referral mechanism for children on the move. The new referral mechanism, which was operationalized during the reporting period, aims to improve responses and care for survivors of child trafficking. (42) |
Communication lapses among government agencies may hinder coordination and the ability of agencies to implement their mandates related to the worst forms of child labor (11)
The government has established policies related to child labor (Table 9). However, policy gaps exist that hinder efforts to address child labor, including mainstreaming child labor issues into relevant policies.
|
Policy |
Description |
|---|---|
|
National Child Labor Policy |
Outlines objectives for prevention and elimination of child labor and designates responsible agencies to address child labor issues. (43) During the reporting period the government launched and published its second National Action Plan (NAP) for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor, which is the implementation strategy for the National Child Labor Policy. The updated NAP outlines strategies for the effective elimination by 2025 of the worst forms of child labor in Zambia through coordination of various stakeholders. (7) |
|
7th National Development Plan (2017–2021) |
Outlined Zambia’s strategy to promote inclusive economic growth and national development to support Zambia's long-term goal of becoming a "middle income" country, including through the elimination of child labor, by 2030. Sought to improve access to quality education and reduce poverty by 20 percent by 2021. (44) In 2021, the government launched the International Year for the Elimination of Child Labor to encourage actions to eradicate child labor. In addition, in June, the government held public and radio awareness events during the commemoration of the World Day Against Child Labor. (2) |
|
UN’s Sustainable Development Partnership Framework (2016–2021) |
An $806 million framework, funded by the UN, that aimed to protect children, including through the prevention of child labor. (46) In 2021, the government and the UN supported awareness‐raising on the risks of child labor during the national commemoration of the World Day Against Child Labor and facilitated the development of the National Skills Demand Survey Report for Zambia, which provides labor market information to inform career paths of youths. (2) The UN Sustainable Development Partnership Framework expired during the reporting period; however, the government is working with the UN to establish an updated partnership that will run from 2023–2027. (35) |
‡ The government has other polices that may have addressed child labor issues or had an impact on child labor. (11,47-49)
The government has a National Employment and Labor Market Policy, which outlines objectives for promoting decent work in Zambia, but the policy does not incorporate strategies for prevention and elimination of child labor. (50) Also, the government has not included child labor elimination and prevention strategies in the Education Policy. (51)
In 2021, the government funded and participated in programs that include the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor (Table 10). However, gaps exist in these social programs, including the inadequacy to address the problem in all sectors.
|
Program |
Description |
|---|---|
|
Social Cash Transfer Program† |
Government program to provide funds to families and increase school enrollment. (52) As of September 2020, about 700,000 were receiving benefits under the Social Cash Transfer Program. (53) The government allocated $137 million (ZMW 2.3 billion) to the Social Cash Transfer Program in 2021. (2) |
|
Achieving Reduction of Child Labor in Support of Education (ARISE) (2019-2021) |
Japan Tobacco International and Winrock International joint initiative that sought to eliminate the worst forms of child labor in tobacco-growing communities in Brazil, Malawi, Tanzania, and Zambia. (18,54) |
|
Determined, Resilient, Empowered, AIDS-free, Mentored, and Safe (DREAMS) |
A $30 million initiative, funded jointly by USAID and the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, aimed at increasing protections for vulnerable adolescent girls and young women through access to health services, including support for HIV prevention and treatment, family planning, care for survivors of gender-based violence, and economic empowerment activities to promote access to a basic income; a total of 177,015 adolescent girls and young women were enrolled in the program as of 2020. (10,25,55-57) |
† Program is funded by the Government of Zambia.
‡ The government had other social programs that may have included the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor. (11,61)
In 2021, the government launched a new policy aimed at universal free public education in Zambia and financed the recruitment of 22,000 additional teachers and the purchase of desks and school supplies. (2) In addition, the Ministry of Labor, in collaboration with other line ministries, international cooperating partners, NGOS, and CSOs implemented a school re‐integration and family reunion program for children withdrawn from child labor. (2)
Research indicates that problems with tracking of payments and cash flows within the Social Cash Transfer System resulted in irregular payment disbursements, including delayed and reduced payments, for vulnerable families receiving funds. (10,25) Moreover, an evaluation of the Social Cash Transfer Program found that it resulted in a net increase in child labor, particularly in farm work and cattle herding, because families used funds from the program to expand their agricultural and livestock holdings, which resulted in an increase of children's work activities within the home. Children were also more likely to work excessively long hours and there was no reduction in children's work outside of the home. (62) Although Zambia has programs that target child labor, the scope of these programs is insufficient to fully address the extent of the problem in all relevant sectors, particularly regarding child labor in agriculture, domestic work, and commercial sexual exploitation.
Based on the reporting above, suggested actions are identified that would advance the elimination of child labor in Zambia (Table 11).
|
Area |
Suggested Action |
Year(s) Suggested |
|---|---|---|
|
Legal Framework |
Accede to the UN CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography and the UN CRC Optional Protocol on Armed Conflict. |
2018 – 2021 |
|
Determine the list of light work activities for children ages 13 to 15. |
2018 – 2021 |
|
|
Ensure that laws prohibiting child trafficking do not require threats, the use of force, or coercion for an act to be considered child trafficking. |
2017 – 2021 |
|
|
Establish through statutory instrument the "school-going age" for compulsory education, in line with the minimum age for work. |
2012 – 2021 |
|
|
Enforcement |
Publish information on labor law enforcement efforts, including the number of child labor violations found, the number of child labor violations for which penalties were imposed, and the number of child labor penalties imposed that were collected. |
2021 |
|
Institutionalize training for labor inspectors, including by training new labor inspectors at the beginning of their employment and providing refresher courses. |
2021 |
|
|
Ensure that inspections cover all areas in which children work, including registered and unregistered businesses. |
2010 – 2021 |
|
|
Ensure that labor inspectors have sufficient funding and have resources, including vehicles and fuel, office space, and training, to enforce labor laws throughout the country. |
2010 – 2021 |
|
|
Publish information on criminal law enforcement efforts, including training of new investigators, the number of investigations and convictions, and whether penalties were imposed. |
2014 – 2021 |
|
|
Develop and implement consistent procedures to screen and identify human trafficking victims while ensuring government agencies have sufficient human and financial resources to address human trafficking. |
2018 – 2021 |
|
|
Coordination |
Improve lines of communication and clarify responsibilities among agencies to improve effectiveness and referrals to social services. |
2011 – 2021 |
|
Ensure all coordinating bodies are active and able to carry out their mandates. |
2021 |
|
|
Government Policies |
Integrate child labor elimination and prevention strategies into the Education Policy and the National Employment and Labor Market Policy. |
2013 – 2021 |
|
Social Programs |
Ensure that all children have access to education and are not restricted by long travel distances, auxiliary school costs, lack of classrooms and teachers, lack of birth certificates, or early marriage. |
2012 – 2021 |
|
Harmonize child labor prevention and elimination measures and improve financial tracking in the Social Cash Transfer Program. |
2020 – 2021 |
|
|
Expand existing programs to address the full scope of the child labor problem in all relevant sectors, including agriculture, mining, domestic work, and commercial sexual exploitation. |
2011 – 2021 |
- U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report- 2021: Zambia. Washington, D.C., July 1, 2021.
https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-trafficking-in-persons-report/zambia/ - U.S. Embassy- Lusaka. Reporting. January 14, 2022.
- UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Gross intake ratio to the last grade of primary education, both sexes (%). Accessed March 3, 2022. For more information, please see "Children's Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions" in the Reference Materials section of this report.
http://data.uis.unesco.org/ - ILO. Analysis of Child Economic Activity and School Attendance Statistics from National Household or Child Labor Surveys. Original data from Labour Force Survey (LFS), 2008. Analysis received March, 2022. Please see “Children's Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions” in the Reference Materials section of this report.
- Zulu, Abawelo. JTI says over 1 million children in child labour. The Mast. October 22, 2017. Source on file.
- Unfair Tobacco. The impact of tobacco production on children´s rights in Zambia. Youtube. December 1, 2020.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IDsXn_0kJLs - Government of Zambia. National Action Plan for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour, 2020-2025. 2021. Source on file.
- UNICEF The 2021 Situation Analysis of the Status and Well-Being of Children in Zambia. October 2021.
https://www.unicef.org/zambia/media/2591/file/Zambia-situation-analysis-2021-revised.pdf - U.S. Embassy- Lusaka. Reporting. January 22, 2020.
- U.S. Embassy- Lusaka. Reporting. January 14, 2021.
- U.S. Embassy- Lusaka. Reporting. January 22, 2020.
- Banda, Webby. Appraisal of Zambia's Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Sector. Centre for Trade Policy & Development. October, 2020.
https://ctpd.org.zm/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Gold-Mining-Study-Final-Report1.pdf - U.S. Embassy- Lusaka. Reporting. February 19, 2021.
- Mwaaba, Christine. Zambia: Tackling Child Labour in Agro Sector. October 16, 2017.
https://allafrica.com/stories/201710160656.html - ILO Committee of Experts. Observation concerning Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182) Zambia (ratification: 2001). Published 2021.
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:4004162:NO - U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report- 2020: Zambia. Washington, D.C., June 2020.
https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-trafficking-in-persons-report/zambia/ - Musonda, Chishala. Child Labour at Mine Site Worries Minister. July 19, 2019.
http://www.daily-mail.co.zm/child-labour-at-mine-site-worries-minister/ - ARISE. Reaching New Heights Together: Annual Review 2017. 2018.
http://ariseprogram.org/files/8415/2872/7578/ARISE_Annual_Review_2017.pdf - UN General Assembly Human Rights Council. Summary of Stakeholders’ submissions on Zambia—Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. August 18, 2017: A/HRC/WG.6/28/ZMB/3.
https://undocs.org/en/A/HRC/WG.6/28/ZMB/3 - Government of Zambia. Child Poverty in Zambia: A Multiple Overlapping Deprivation Analyses. Lusaka: UNICEF. 2018.
https://www.unicef.org/zambia/media/1176/file - Government of Zambia. National report submitted in accordance with paragraph 5 of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 16/21*: Zambia. Human Rights Council, Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review, Twenty-eighth session. A/HRC/WG.6/28/ZMB/1. October 26, 2017.
https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/UPR/Pages/ZMIndex.aspx - Government of Zambia. Zambia Constitution. Enacted: August 24, 1991.
https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Zambia_2016.pdf?lang=en - Government of Zambia. The Employment Code Act, 2019. Enacted: April 4, 2019.
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/108714/134550/F144869431/ZMB108714.pdf - Government of Zambia. Prohibition of Employment of Young Persons and Children (Hazardous Labour) Order, No. 121. Enacted: December 27, 2013.
- U.S. Embassy- Lusaka official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. March 26, 2021.
- Government of Zambia. The Anti-Human Trafficking Act, 2008. Enacted: September 26, 2008.
http://ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=79940&p_country=ZMB&p_count=182 - Government of Zambia. The Penal Code Act, as amended. Enacted: 2005. Source on file.
- Government of Zambia. Defence Act. Enacted: 1964. Source on file.
- Government of Zambia. Education Act of 2011. Enacted: 2011. Source on file.
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