Children in Mexico are subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including in commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking, and in illicit activities, such as the production and trafficking of drugs. (1-4) Children also perform dangerous tasks in agriculture, including in the production of chile peppers, coffee, sugarcane, and tomatoes. (5,6) Data from the National Child Labor Survey (ENTI 2019), which was funded by USDOL, show that 3.1 million children between the ages of 5 and 17 engage in child labor, with 52 percent of these children engaging in hazardous work. It also shows that 25 percent of child laborers do not attend school, 61 percent of child laborers are boys, and that child labor primarily occurs in the central and southern states of Oaxaca, Puebla, Chiapas, and Michoacán. (7,8) Table 1 provides key indicators on children’s work and education in Mexico.

Source for primary completion rate: Data from 2019, published by UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2022. (9)
Source for all other data: International Labor Organization's analysis of statistics from Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI), Encuesta Nacional de Trabajo Infantil (ENTI), 2019. (10)

Based on a review of available information, Table 2 provides an overview of children's work by sector and activity.

† Determined by national law or regulation as hazardous and, as such, relevant to Article 3(d) of ILO C. 182.
‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.

In 2021, reports suggest that almost 850,000 children did not continue their basic education. This includes 656,000 students who did not transition from elementary school to lower secondary school. (46,47) Government reports also show that at least 1,200 schools closed between 2020 and 2021. In addition, students reported difficulty accessing distance learning programs as at least half of Mexican households do not have computers or Internet access, while 80 percent of indigenous or rural households lacked computers or Internet access. (47,48) The lack of access to education and school abandonment leaves children more vulnerable to the worst forms of child labor. (4,17,49,50)

Organized criminal groups recruit and exploit children in illicit activities, including serving as lookouts, carrying out armed attacks against authorities and rival cartels, and in the production, transport, and sale of drugs. Experts estimate that as many as 250,000 children are at risk of being recruited by these criminal groups. (4,43,44,51-53) Most of the time these children abandon school, are unable to access future employment in the formal sector, or go on to commit graver crimes. (4,44,45,51) Children in Mexico are also trafficked internally for commercial sexual exploitation and illicit activities, including by organized criminal groups. The state of Tlaxcala is known as the predominant source and transit center for child commercial sexual exploitation in Mexico, but it also occurs in tourist areas such as Acapulco, Puerto Vallarta, and Cancun, and in northern border cities such as Tijuana and Ciudad Juárez. (1,2,23,53,54) The states of Chiapas, Guerrero, Puebla, and Veracruz are also source and transit centers for human trafficking for the purposes of sexual and labor exploitation. Mexico's National System for Integral Family Development (SNDIF) estimates that each year at least 70,000 children and adolescents are trafficked for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation. (23,55) Reports by Mexico's National Commission on Human Rights (CNDH) and the UN Office on Drugs and Crime found that 25 percent of female trafficking victims in Mexico are under age 18 while 45 percent of child trafficking victims are children of indigenous descent. (1,4,36,56,57)

Child labor in agriculture is more prevalent among boys. Although children engage in agricultural activities throughout the country, the majority of child labor in this sector occurs in the central and southern states of Oaxaca, Puebla, Chiapas, and Nayarit. (7,8) Children’s work in agriculture often includes long working hours, use of sharp tools, handling pesticides, and carrying heavy loads. (6,58,59) A 2018 report by the Centro de Derechos Humanos de la Montaña Tlachinollan found that 42 percent of Mexican migrant agricultural worker households had at least one child engaged in child labor. (13,60,61) In addition, organized criminal groups operating in rural areas throughout the country actively recruit children, making some children in agricultural export-producing communities vulnerable to involvement in illicit activities. (16,45,62-64) An April 2022 labor law reform requires the Secretariat of Labor and Social Welfare (STPS) to establish regulations regarding hazardous occupations in agriculture, which may allow older children who cannot legally work in agriculture to obtain employment in this sector in the future. (65-67)

Children from indigenous populations are more likely to work across all sectors, including in agriculture, than non-indigenous children. (13,60,68) Children from indigenous populations also work at road intersections, often begging for money or performing juggling acts for motorists at traffic lights. (69) Indigenous children are also less likely to attend school due to the lack of schools near their homes, educational materials, and instruction in native languages. (68,70,71) According to CNDH, because of these low educational levels, as well as linguistic barriers and discrimination, indigenous populations are especially vulnerable to child labor and human trafficking. (36,52,72,73)

Migrants, mostly from the northern Central America countries of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras, who are fleeing violence, instability, and lack of opportunity in their countries of origin, travel through Mexico en route to the United States. In addition, thousands of Haitians, including children, crossed into Mexico, some from Central America, throughout 2021. (74,75) Migrant children, especially those travelling by themselves, are more vulnerable to human trafficking, forced recruitment by organized criminal groups, and other worst forms of child labor. (4,76,77) In addition, many migrant children do not have access to education. (77,78)

The National Institute of Migration (INM) is responsible for enforcing the rights of migrant children in coordination with the SNDIF, and the Mexican Commission for Refugee Assistance (COMAR) is tasked with refugee assistance. However, due to government austerity measures and an increase in the number of migrants, including unaccompanied children, INM, SNDIF, and COMAR did not have sufficient funding to carry out their mandates. (23,79-81) In addition, although the government revised laws in November 2020 to address the best interests of migrant and refugee children, including placement in child protection centers while waiting to be repatriated, some children remained in INM detention centers without access to education during the reporting period. (75,76,82-84) Moreover, many SNDIF shelters, in which migrant families and unaccompanied children are housed, have reached or are nearing capacity, and poor coordination by INM and SNDIF left some of these children and families without access to shelter. (81,85,86) Authorities also did not effectively identify human trafficking victims among migrant populations, and trafficking victims did not have access to comprehensive protections and services. (87)

Mexico has ratified all key international conventions concerning child labor (Table 3).

The government’s laws and regulations are in line with relevant international standards (Table 4).

In April 2022, Mexico enacted a reform to the Labor Code that would permit children as young as 15 to work in some agricultural employment. Previously, Article 176 of the Labor Code deemed work in agriculture, hunting and fishing as hazardous and, accordingly, prohibited children under the age of 18 from engaging in this kind of work. (16,65,66,95) The reform qualified the language in Art. 176 to prohibit minors from engaging in these activities while using chemicals, handling machinery, operating heavy vehicles, and carrying out other tasks as determined by the competent authority. The STPS has 180 days after the entry in force of the reform to classify activities in Art. 176 and determine which activities would be lower risk and thus permissible for minors. (65,66,95) Proponents of the reform state that permitting minors to work in low-risk agricultural activities may create formal employment opportunities in rural areas. (17,66,67) However, critics suggests that the reform may jeopardize the health and safety of children by exposing them to the hazards and extreme conditions involved in agricultural work. Others view the reform as a setback for child labor protections and note that the reform lacks corresponding mechanisms and resources for ensuring labor law enforcement. (17,66,67)

The United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement entered into force on July 1, 2020. The agreement contains a labor chapter with fully enforceable labor obligations, including on internationally recognized labor rights. (96,97) Under this chapter, Mexico committed to adopt and maintain in its statutes, regulations, and practices the effective abolition of child labor and a prohibition on the worst forms of child labor. This chapter also requires each country to prohibit the importation into its territory from other countries of any goods produced in whole or in part by forced or compulsory labor, including forced or compulsory child labor. (97) While the Government of Mexico established a working group to continue reviewing existing laws related to the prohibition of the importation of goods produced by forced or compulsory child labor and is developing a plan to implement the prohibition, including determining legal sufficiency for subsequent enforcement actions, the working group did not provide an update on the status of the draft plan during the reporting period. (17,53,98)

As the minimum age for work at age 15 is lower than the compulsory education age, children may be encouraged to leave school before the completion of compulsory education. (16,90)

The government has established relevant institutional mechanisms for the enforcement of laws and regulations on child labor (Table 5). However, gaps exist within the operations of enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate enforcement of child labor laws.

Since 2019, the Government of Mexico has implemented austerity measures that left many secretariats and agencies, including the Attorney General of the Republic (FGR) and CNDH, at both the federal and state levels, without the appropriate personnel, expertise, and leadership to carry out core government functions, including enforcing laws and establishing and implementing policies and programs related to the worst forms of child labor. (17,53,135,136)

Federal and state labor inspectorates carry out labor inspections in formally registered businesses. (99,100,137,138) Although these inspectorates have the authority to conduct unannounced inspections in the informal sector, in practice, inspections in the informal sector are only conducted in response to a formal complaint. As the informal sector accounts for 57 percent of employment in Mexico, including agricultural employment, the lack of inspections in this sector leaves children vulnerable to labor exploitation. (11,98,99,101,137-140)

Labor Law Enforcement

In 2021, labor law enforcement agencies in Mexico took actions to address child labor (Table 6). However, gaps exist within the operations of the Secretariat of Labor and Social Welfare (STPS) that may hinder adequate labor law enforcement, including insufficient human and financial resource allocation.

† Data are for federal inspectorate only. (42)
‡ Data are for federal inspectorate only. (17)

In 2021, 25 out of 32 states provided information on their state labor inspectorates and reported employing a total of 304 labor inspectors. In addition, STPS hired 24 labor inspectors, bringing their total number of labor inspectors to 471. (17) However, the number of labor inspectors at the federal and state levels is likely insufficient for the size of Mexico’s workforce, which includes approximately 53 million workers. According to the ILO’s technical advice of a ratio approaching 1 inspector for every 15,000 workers in developing economies, Mexico would need to employ roughly 3,552 labor inspectors. (143-145)

The STPS initiates routine and targeted inspections based on analysis of compliance data and patterns of complaints. Unannounced inspections for child labor violations are only conducted in response to complaints and must be coordinated with representatives from SNDIF and the local Office of the FGR. (100,104,137,146) The STPS did not report carrying out inspections specific to child labor in 2021. The total number of child labor complaints received is unknown, as the STPS does not have an internal system to track cases of child labor violations. (105,138,147,148)

During the reporting period, STPS identified 2 child labor violations and an additional 8 states out of 32 reported identifying a total of 215 violations related to child labor. However, STPS and the states did not provide information on penalties imposed or collected. (17,42,100,104,122-126) STPS is not authorized to collect any fines and must refer fine collection to the Tax Administration Service (SAT), which rarely enforces fine collection for any labor law violations. Moreover, research could not verify that all state-level labor ministries conducted child labor inspections, sanctioned establishments in violation of the Labor Code, or applied the guidelines on identifying and sanctioning child labor violations as outlined in the "Labor Inspection Protocol to Eradicate Child Labor and Protect Adolescent Workers". (17,42,98,100,104,122-126) However, the States of Chiapas, Puebla, Queretaro, Tabasco, and Veracruz provided their labor inspectors with training on child labor, including applying labor inspection protocols to identify and sanction child labor violations. (17) In 2021, STPS increased the budget dedicated to the labor inspectorate by over $100,000 compared to 2020. In addition, the States of Mexico, Hidalgo, Sonora, Tamaulipas, and Veracruz provided information on the budget allocated to each state's labor inspectorate for a total of almost $1.4 million. (17)

In 2021, STPS implemented a new voluntary reporting system called the Voluntary Labor Verification Program (VELAVO), which allows formally registered businesses to enroll and self-identify as compliant with the program's requirements related to working conditions, including provisions related to child labor. Registered businesses deemed to be in compliance according to the documentation submitted will be exempt from routine labor inspections for one year, although this does not prevent the STPS from conducting complaint-based labor inspections in these businesses. (149,150)

The STPS and state-level labor ministries share enforcement authority of child labor laws and are authorized to establish agreements for coordination of inspection duties. However, due to limited information sharing between federal and state-level inspectorates, some establishments may not be inspected for labor law violations. (99,138,148) Moreover, concerns remain with Mexico’s lack of enforcement of laws governing the minimum age for employment in rural areas or at small and medium enterprises, particularly in the agricultural sector. (53,66,151)

Even though federal labor inspectors have the authority to assess penalties for most labor infractions, child labor and forced labor infractions are considered criminal offenses. In such cases, inspectors are required to file a citation with the STPS’s Directorate of Judicial Affairs to initiate sanctioning procedures with the state-level finance ministries or the FGR, who are then responsible for collecting fines or initiating criminal sanctions. (17,99,137,141,148)

Criminal Law Enforcement

In 2021, criminal law enforcement agencies in Mexico took actions to address child labor (Table 7). However, gaps exist within the operations of criminal enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate criminal law enforcement, including insufficient financial resource allocation.

† Data reported may not be complete. (53,85)
‡ Data are for January 1, 2021 through July 31, 2021. (54)

Between January and October 2021, the Secretariat for Security and Citizen Protection (SSPC) conducted 638 investigations into potential cases of human trafficking, representing an increase of almost 10 percent from the previous year. As a result of these inspections, the SSPC identified 650 trafficking victims. (153,154) However, the SSPC did not disaggregate the number of child and adult victims. (153,154) In addition, research conducted by the Consejo Ciudadano, which operates the National Trafficking Line, found fraudulent job offers for work in factories and in agriculture was the main form of recruitment used by human traffickers during the reporting period. The National Trafficking Line also registered an increase in the proportion of calls involving children being trafficked, making up as many as 47 percent of calls to the hotline, up from 32 percent in 2019. (155)

During 2021, the FGR’s Specialized Unit for Crimes Against Women and Trafficking in Persons (FEVIMTRA) had a budget of $3.3 million, and conducted 16 investigations related to trafficking in persons and identified 3 child trafficking victims. The states of Chiapas and Guanajuato each reported carrying out four child trafficking investigations while Zacatecas reported conducting one child trafficking investigation. (17,53,54) Moreover, the State of Mexico achieved 5 convictions for child trafficking, Michoacán reported 2 child trafficking convictions, the states of Guanajuato, Morelos, and Queretaro each reported 1 child trafficking conviction, and 15 individuals were prosecuted for trafficking in persons by the states of Chiapas, Hidalgo, Puebla, and Zacatecas. (17,53,54) These investigations included at least six public officials accused of involvement in crimes related to trafficking in persons, and in February 2022, a police officer in Mexico City was convicted of possession of child pornography and sentenced to 5 years' imprisonment. (53,54,152) Additionally, the Financial Intelligence Unit (UIF), which detects and combats criminal operations using illicit funds, identified 201 possible cases of trafficking in persons, of which 43 cases involved minors. (53)

Reports indicate that the lack of training for criminal law enforcement officers on how to perform prosecutorial and police investigative functions, and confusion over territorial jurisdictions, has hampered their ability to adequately investigate and prosecute cases involving the worst forms of child labor. (4,17,53,54) In addition, the insufficient capacity of prosecutors and judges to try criminal cases related to human trafficking meant that many suspected traffickers were incorrectly prosecuted for minor offenses or were acquitted. (4,17,53,54) Moreover, state prosecutors had limited financial resources available for investigations, training, and outreach. (54,156,157)

According to public sources, the government conducted 484 investigations between January and July 2021, and made at least 42 convictions at the federal and state levels for crimes related to the worst forms of child labor; however, the complete number of investigations conducted, prosecutions initiated, and convictions achieved is unknown. (53,54,85) Although the government provided some information on its criminal law enforcement efforts related to the worst forms of child labor at the federal level and for some states, weak coordination and inconsistent data sharing among government agencies prevented comprehensive statistics from being compiled. (17,53,54) Research also identified that inconsistent data collection and the lack of coordination amongst government ministries may hinder criminal prosecutions and impact government efforts to provide victim services. (17,53,54,64,158,159)

The government has established mechanisms to coordinate its efforts to address child labor (Table 8). However, gaps exist that hinder the effective coordination of efforts to address child labor, including inefficacy in accomplishing mandates.

The government has established policies related to child labor (Table 9). However, policy gaps exist that hinder efforts to address child labor, including lack of coverage of all worst forms of child labor.

† Policy was approved during the reporting period.
‡ The government has other policies that may have addressed child labor issues or had an impact on child labor. (176)

Mexico became a Pathfinder country under Alliance 8.7 in 2019 to accelerate commitments toward achieving Sustainable Development Goal Target 8.7, which calls for the eradication of forced labor, modern slavery, and human trafficking by 2030, and the eradication of child labor by 2025. (177,178) As a Pathfinder country, the government developed and implemented the Alliance 8.7 Roadmap to Eradicate Child Labor, Forced Labor, and Trafficking in Persons, which includes the goals of improving information generation on child and forced labor, strengthening coordination between the CITI and the Inter-Institutional Commission for the Prevention and Punishment of Human Trafficking Crimes, and establishing preventative actions to address child and forced labor in supply chains. (177,179) In addition, as part of the efforts to improve information generation and coordination between the CITI and the Inter-Institutional Commission on Trafficking, STPS led the Working Group on Information Strategies and Preventative Campaigns between the two Commissions. STPS is also developing a Labor Inspection Program for 2022 focusing on the agricultural industry and the carbon-mining sector to prevent child labor and forced labor in these supply chains. (180)

During the reporting period, the government finalized the Plan of Action on Child Labor 2021–2024 and published the National Program for the Protection of Children and Adolescents (PRONAPPINA) 2021–2024. In addition, the government published the National Program for Equality between Men and Women (PROIGUALDAD) 2020–2024, which includes actions to improve the labor conditions of young women and girls and actions to reduce child labor. (17,166,167,181) However, even though the government drafted the National Action Plan on Trafficking in Persons 2020–2024 in 2019, this plan has not been officially approved. (17,182) Although the government has policies to address some worst forms of child labor, research found no evidence of a policy to address commercial sexual exploitation or the use of children in illicit activities. (141,164,168)

The government funded and participated in programs that include the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor (Table 10). However, gaps exist in these social programs, including the inadequacy to address the problem in all sectors and in all states.

† Program is funded by the Government of Mexico.
*Program was launched during the reporting period.
‡ The government had other social programs that may have included the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor. (42,141,202-206)

During the reporting period, the government eliminated many social programs that increased education access and reduced risk for child labor for indigenous children, migrant and refugee children, and children from other vulnerable groups. These programs included the Indigenous People’s Education Diversity Program (PADEI), Educational Program for Migrant School Population (PAEPEM), and the Full-Time Schools Program (PETC). (17,207-211) Research could not confirm whether these programs will be replaced by new programs in future years.

Based on the reporting above, suggested actions are identified that would advance the elimination of child labor in Mexico (Table 11).

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