Child Labor and Forced Labor Reports
Indonesia
Moderate Advancement
In 2022, Indonesia made moderate advancement in efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labor. The Ministry of Women's Empowerment and Child Protection, together with the United Nations Children's Fund, launched the Prevention of Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse program, a 3-year partnership in response to a report on Indonesian children being victims of online sexual exploitation. The Ministry of Manpower also increased funding for the labor inspectorate from $12.2 million in 2021 to $15.1 million in 2022, and increased its number of labor inspectors by 267, for a total of 1,570. However, children in Indonesia are subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including in commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking. Children also perform dangerous tasks in plantation agriculture, including in palm oil and tobacco production. Despite increases in funding and inspectors in 2022, the Ministry of Manpower continues to lack the financial resources and personnel necessary to fully enforce child labor laws throughout the country. In addition, Indonesia's prohibitions against child trafficking are inconsistent with international law because the Law on the Eradication of the Criminal Act of Trafficking in Persons requires that a demonstration of threats, the use of force, or coercion be established for the crime of child trafficking to have occurred.
Table 1 provides key indicators on children’s work and education in Indonesia.
| Children | Age | Percent |
|---|---|---|
| Working (% and population) | 10 to 14 | 3.7 (816,363) |
| Working children by sector | 10 to 14 | |
| Agriculture | 61.6 | |
| Industry | 12.0 | |
| Services | 26.5 | |
| Attending School (%) | 10 to 14 | 92.4 |
| Combining Work and School (%) | 10 to 14 | 2.1 |
| Primary Completion Rate (%) | 102.3 |
Source for primary completion rate: Data from 2018, published by UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2023. (1)
Source for all other data: International Labor Organization’s analysis of statistics from National Labor Force Survey (SAKERNAS), 2010. (2)
Based on a review of available information, Table 2 provides an overview of children's work by sector and activity.
| Sector/Industry | Activity |
|---|---|
| Agriculture | Harvesting of palm oil, including growing, fertilizing, cutting, spraying, collecting, and loading palm oil fruits† (3-9) |
| Planting, watering, harvesting, and applying fertilizer to tobacco, and curing, tying, and carrying tobacco leaves into storage units in the post-harvesting phase† (9-12) | |
| Planting seeds, spreading fertilizer, and spraying weed poison† at a eucalyptus plantation (13,14) | |
| Production of rubber† (10) | |
| Fishing, including on fishing vessels, in processing facilities, and on offshore platforms† (8,9,15-17) | |
| Industry | Mining,† including gold, tin, and sand (10,18,19) |
| Construction,† activities unknown (9,11,16,20) | |
| Production of footwear (11) | |
| Production of woven fabric, rattan-based bags, pottery, and other goods (12) | |
| Services | Street work, including working as sidewalk food vendors, begging, busking, street performing, and other unknown activities (17,18,21) |
| Horse jockeying (9,10,22,23) | |
| Domestic work (8,16) | |
| Categorical Worst Forms of Child Labor‡ | Commercial sexual exploitation, including use in the production of pornography, sometimes as a result of human trafficking (8,9,24,25) |
| Forced domestic work, fishing, and mining (8,9,11,16,18,20) | |
| Use in illicit activities, including the sale, production, and trafficking of drugs, each sometimes as a result of human trafficking (9,11,15) |
† Determined by national law or regulation as hazardous and, as such, relevant to Article 3(d) of ILO C. 182.
‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.
Children are subjected to forced domestic work and commercial sexual exploitation, both domestically and abroad. (8-10,16,18,24) During the COVID-19 pandemic, Indonesia closed its borders to foreign tourists and limited domestic tourism, which may have had an effect on reducing the prevalence of commercial sexual exploitation by Indonesians and foreigners. (10) Meanwhile, perpetrators are increasingly using online and social media platforms to recruit victims of commercial sexual exploitation and human trafficking, and to coerce children to engage in sexual activities through promises of money or gifts. (9,26,27) The pandemic kept many children at home with no access to school services, and perpetrators may have used this opportunity to target minors with access to the internet and more unsupervised time. (24)
Children working in tobacco farming and on agricultural plantations, including palm oil and rubber plantations, are exposed to hazardous working conditions. (4,8,12,28,29) Children on palm oil plantations are often recruited by family members to help adult laborers meet harvest quotas, which sometimes results in children working long hours into the night or dropping out of school. (3,5-7,10) Children in the city of Bima, on the island of Sumbawa, work as horse jockeys and face a number of health and safety hazards, including the risk of bone injuries and fatal falls. In addition to safety concerns, participation in horse racing may impact school attendance. (22,23)
The Ministry of Women's Empowerment and Child Protection (MoWECP)'s 2020 Indonesian Children's Profile report, the most recent source of government child labor data, is missing data for child laborers ages 5 to 10. (30) The ILO's findings based on the National Workforce Surveys (SAKERNAS) from 2011–2020 data reveal a decreasing trend for child labor in Indonesia, but further studies are needed to determine the impact of the pandemic on child labor. (31) However, research indicates that not all government ministries are using the most recent child labor data to inform programs. (8,10) Although the Act on the National Education System mandates free education, schools impose additional fees on students to cover items such as books, uniforms, transportation, and other non-tuition costs, which may hinder the ability of students, particularly those from low-income families, to attend school. (32,33) Refugee children, and Indonesian children without proper birth documentation or a government-sponsored identification card, face a barrier to accessing education, because Indonesia's formal education system is only accessible to citizens and individuals with officially granted residency. (8,30,33,34) In addition, children with disabilities report high rates of non-registration, and therefore may also face similar challenges. (35)
Indonesia has ratified all key international conventions concerning child labor (Table 3).
| Convention | Ratification |
|---|---|
| ILO C. 138, Minimum Age | ✓ |
| ILO C. 182, Worst Forms of Child Labor | ✓ |
| UN CRC | ✓ |
| UN CRC Optional Protocol on Armed Conflict | ✓ |
| UN CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography | ✓ |
| Palermo Protocol on Trafficking in Persons | ✓ |
The government has established laws and regulations related to child labor (Table 4). However, gaps exist in Indonesia's legal framework to adequately protect children from the worst forms of child labor, including insufficient prohibitions against child trafficking.
| Standard | Meets International Standards | Age | Legislation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Minimum Age for Work | Yes | 15 | Law on the Ratification of ILO C. 138; Article 69 of the Manpower Act (36,37) |
| Minimum Age for Hazardous Work | Yes | 18 | Article 74 of the Manpower Act; Article 2 of Ministerial Decree on Jobs that Jeopardize the Health, Safety, or Morals of Children (37,38) |
| Identification of Hazardous Occupations or Activities Prohibited for Children | Yes | Annex F of Ministerial Decree on Jobs that Jeopardize the Health, Safety, or Morals of Children (38) | |
| Prohibition of Forced Labor | Yes | Article 74 of the Manpower Act; Articles 1–6 and 17 of the Law on the Eradication of the Criminal Act of Trafficking in Persons; Article 83 of the Law on Child Protection (37,39,40) | |
| Prohibition of Child Trafficking | No | Articles 1–6 and 17 of the Law on the Eradication of the Criminal Act of Trafficking in Persons; Article 83 of the Law on Child Protection (39,40) | |
| Prohibition of Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children | Yes | Article 74 of the Manpower Act; Articles 81 and 82 of the Law on Child Protection; Section 3 of the Law on the Ratification of the Rights of the Child Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography; Articles 4–12 and 37 of the Law on Anti-Pornography; Article 297 of the Penal Code (37,40-43) | |
| Prohibition of Using Children in Illicit Activities | Yes | Article 74 of the Manpower Act; Articles 67, 78, and 89 of the Law on Child Protection (37,40) | |
| Minimum Age for Voluntary State Military Recruitment | Yes | Article 28 of Law on the Indonesian National Armed Forces (44) | |
| Prohibition of Compulsory Recruitment of Children by (State) Military | Yes | Article 28 of Law on the Indonesian National Armed Forces (44) | |
| Prohibition of Military Recruitment by Non-state Armed Groups | Yes | Article 3(d) of Law on the Ratification of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (45) | |
| Compulsory Education Age | Yes | 15 | Article 48 of the Law on Child Protection; Articles 6 and 34 of the National Education System Act (32,40) |
| Free Public Education | No | Articles 12, Section 2(b), and 34 of the National Education System Act (32) |
Indonesia's prohibitions against child trafficking are inconsistent with international law because the Law on the Eradication of the Criminal Act of Trafficking in Persons requires a demonstration of threats, the use of force, or coercion to be established for the crime of child trafficking. (39,40) Although Indonesia does specify the conditions in which light work may be undertaken and limits the number of hours for light work, it does not list activities in which light work may be permitted. The types of hazardous work prohibited for children also do not cover horse jockeying, a type of work in which there is evidence that Indonesian children are exposed to physical dangers. (38) In addition, although the National Education System Act provides for free basic education, Article 12, Section 2(b) of the Act also requires students to pay prescribed fees unless those fees are waived. (32)
The government has established relevant institutional mechanisms for the enforcement of laws and regulations on child labor (Table 5).
| Organization/Agency | Role & Activities |
|---|---|
| Ministry of Manpower (MoM) | Through the Directorate General of Labor Development and Supervision, enforces the country's labor laws relating to child labor through labor inspections and formulates policies, standards, norms, guidelines, and mechanisms on labor inspections. Provides information to employers on child labor laws and regulations and works with law enforcement officials to prosecute child labor violators. (46) Through the Directorate of Norms Supervision of Women and Child Workers, responds to complaints of child labor by telephone, fax, or e-mail. Refers children found during inspections to the local Women’s Empowerment and Family Planning Body or to the Integrated Service Center for Empowering Women and Children for appropriate social services, coordinated by the Ministry of Women's Empowerment and Child Protection (MoWECP) and the Ministry of Social Affairs (MoSA). (8) |
| Indonesian National Police, including Women and Children’s Service Unit | Handle investigations involving child trafficking. (8) Conduct inspections and raids, and make arrests in response to crimes, including those related to the worst forms of child labor. (47) |
Labor Law Enforcement
In 2022, labor law enforcement agencies in Indonesia took actions to address child labor (Table 6). However, gaps exist within the operations of the Ministry of Manpower (MoM) that may hinder adequate labor law enforcement, including insufficient human resource allocation.
| Overview of Labor Law Enforcement | 2021 | 2022 |
|---|---|---|
| Labor Inspectorate Funding | $12.2 million (10) | $15.1 million (8) |
| Number of Labor Inspectors | 1,503 (10) | 1,570 (8) |
| Mechanism to Assess Civil Penalties | No (37,48) | No (37,48) |
| Training for Labor Inspectors Provided | Yes (10) | Yes (8) |
| Number of Labor Inspections Conducted at Worksite | 12,419† (10) | 14,627 (8) |
| Number of Child Labor Violations Found | 0 (10) | 0 (8) |
| Number of Child Labor Violations for Which Penalties Were Imposed | N/A (10) | N/A (8) |
| Number of Child Labor Penalties Imposed that Were Collected | N/A (10) | N/A (8) |
| Routine Inspections Conducted | Yes (10) | Yes (8) |
| Routine Inspections Targeted | Yes (10) | Yes (8) |
| Unannounced Inspections Permitted | Yes (48) | Yes (48) |
| Unannounced Inspections Conducted | Yes (10) | No (8) |
| Complaint Mechanism Exists | Yes (10) | Yes (8) |
| Reciprocal Referral Mechanism Exists Between Labor Authorities and Social Services | Yes (10) | Yes (8) |
† Data are from January 2021 to September 2021.
As the law in Indonesia treats child labor as a criminal offense, labor inspectorates may initiate investigations for violations related to child labor, which may result in prosecutions and criminal penalties. (37,48) Child labor cases are investigated by MoM civilian investigators who collect evidence and prepare information that is passed to the Attorney General's Office for subsequent prosecution. (18)
During the reporting period, MoM conducted 14,627 labor inspections in 12,280 worksites, including child labor inspections in 11 palm oil companies, and did not find any instances of child labor in the formal sector; however, labor organizations and MoM officials suspect child labor violations occurred. (8) Indonesia does not have an adequate number of labor inspectors to carry out their mandated duties. Officials at MoM disclosed that there are insufficient inspectors to cover all formal workplaces, and MoM continued to rely on community-based monitors and neighborhood chiefs to report incidences of child labor. (8,18,34,49,50) Despite the budget increase, officials noted that funds are insufficient to cover office infrastructure, transportation, and fuel for vehicles, which hampered labor inspectors' ability to carry out inspections. (8)
Criminal Law Enforcement
In 2022, criminal law enforcement agencies in Indonesia took actions to address child labor (Table 7). However, gaps exist within the operations of the criminal enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate criminal law enforcement, including insufficient training for criminal investigators.
| Overview of Criminal Law Enforcement | 2021 | 2022 |
|---|---|---|
| Training for Criminal Investigators Provided | No (10) | No (8) |
| Number of Investigations | 3 (24) | Unknown (8) |
| Number of Prosecutions Initiated | Unknown (24) | Unknown (8) |
| Number of Convictions | 2 (24,51) | Unknown (8) |
| Imposed Penalties for Violations Related to the Worst Forms of Child Labor | 2 (24) | Unknown (8) |
| Reciprocal Referral Mechanism Exists Between Criminal Authorities and Social Services | Yes (10) | Yes (8) |
The Indonesian National Police's Criminal Investigation Division maintains an informal database of cases involving child trafficking. However, these statistics are not comprehensive of all child trafficking crimes or other worst forms of child labor and reports of the number of violations found and prosecutions initiated do not specify whether they were for the worst forms of child labor offenses or human trafficking offenses. (24) The government does not have a centralized system for aggregating information on criminal law enforcement information related to child labor and its worst forms and lacks the resources to consolidate data in a central database. (8,24) The decentralized nature of criminal law enforcement data and voluntary reporting by precincts may have contributed to the underreporting of criminal law enforcement information related to the worst forms of child labor. (10,47)
The anti-trafficking task forces at the national, provincial, and local levels continue to lack sufficient funding to conduct investigations and carry out their mandate according to the government's anti-trafficking in persons policies and regulations. (9)
The government has established a key coordinating mechanism to coordinate its efforts to address child labor (Table 8). However, gaps exist that hinder the effective coordination of efforts to address child labor, including efficacy in accomplishing mandates.
| Coordinating Body | Role & Activities |
|---|---|
| Indonesian Child Protection Commission (KPAI) | Monitors the implementation of the Child Protection Law and child protection policies and provides recommendations on child protection framework to the President of Indonesia. (40) Includes the MoWECP; MoSA; the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology; the Ministry of Health; Ministry of Agriculture; the Ministry of Law and Human Rights; the Indonesian National Police; and the National Narcotics Agency. (52) During the reporting period, KPAI conducted activities related to child rights and protection, including releasing a number of cases relating to violation of children's rights and issuing recommendations to local and regional governments and ministries relating to child protection and rights fulfillment. (53) |
The government has established policies related to child labor (Table 9).
| Policy | Description & Activities |
|---|---|
| National Plan of Action (NPA) for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor (2002–2022) | Provided a policy framework for the elimination of child labor, including its worst forms. (54) Specific activities conducted during the third phase of the NPA included developing a set of recommendations with international and local NGOs, increasing awareness-raising and advocacy efforts, and integrating child labor in formulating sectoral policies and regulations. Established a program to create a series of industrial zones free of child labor, as well as the National Movement for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor to integrate the issue of child labor as the government develops sectoral policies and programs. (10) During the reporting period, MoM raised awareness on child labor through forum discussions and webinars, and participated in discussions with the Ministry of Law and Human Rights to draft policies on child labor in the tourism sector. MoM is currently reviewing the NPA for next steps, as it expired during the reporting period. (8) |
| Roadmap Toward a Child Labor-Free Indonesia in 2022 (2014–2022) | Supported the implementation of the NPA for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor. Aimed to mainstream the elimination of the worst forms of child labor into relevant national policies; strengthen coordination between stakeholders at the national, provincial, and district levels; and enhance the capacity of stakeholders to eradicate child labor. (55) During the reporting period, the government continued to disseminate recruitment guidelines for employers, labor unions, and companies, as well as education and empowerment programs designed for low-income families. (8) The government is reviewing its Roadmap Toward a Child Labor-Free Indonesia, which expires during the reporting period, with a focus on programming in rural areas. (31) |
‡ The government had other policies that may have addressed child labor issues or had an impact on child labor. (18,56)
In 2022, the government funded and participated in programs that include the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor (Table 10). However, gaps exist in these social programs, including education-related fees for children to attend school.
| Program | Description & Activities |
|---|---|
| Child Trafficking Services† | Provide social rehabilitation and shelter services for child survivors of human trafficking. Led by MoSA and other government agencies. (8,16) During the reporting period, the government allocated $67 million for social rehabilitation programs. (8) |
| Cash Transfer Programs† | Provide conditional cash transfers to help with formal and informal education opportunities and health expenses for vulnerable groups, including street children, abandoned children and infants, children facing criminal charges, children with disabilities, the poorest families, and child laborers who dropped out of school. Includes the Healthy Indonesia Card (Kartu Indonesia Sehat, KIS) for 100 million Indonesians who are struggling to meet basic needs, thereby reducing the risk of child labor; the Smart Indonesia Program (Kartu Indonesia Pintar, KIP), a card that provides educational grants to all school-age children whose families have a Family Welfare Card or meet eligibility criteria covering both formal and informal education; Child Social Welfare Program (Program Kesejahteraan Sosial Anak), which provides conditional cash transfers to children; Family Welfare Card (Kartu Keluarga Sejahtera), which provides a bank account and consolidates all financial assistance programs, including children's education and health funds, for low-income families; and the Family Home Program (Program Keluarga Harapan, PKH), which provides conditional cash transfers for children's education to the poorest 5 percent of households. (8,34,35,47) During the reporting period, the government continued its cash transfer programs, including providing KIP cards to 17.9 million students from poor families and allocating $2.04 billion for the PKH program, which provided services to 10 million beneficiaries. (8) |
| Education Programs† | School Operation Assistance (Bantuan Operasional Sekolah) grant program, funded at IDR 51.6 trillion (approximately US$3.48 billion) during the reporting period, compensates schools for the loss of income from waiving school fees for poor and vulnerable children in primary, junior secondary, and senior high schools. (8,53) Minimum Service Standards of Basic Education Program improves access to quality public education by limiting the distance of primary and junior secondary schools from children’s households, specifying minimum teacher-student ratios, and identifying minimum teacher education qualifications. (57) Community Learning Centers provide education for children of migrant palm oil workers. (16) Research was unable to determine whether the Minimum Service Standards of Basic Education Program or the Community Learning Centers were active during the reporting period. (53) |
For information about USDOL’s projects to address child labor around the world, visit https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/ilab-project-page-search
† Program is funded by the Government of Indonesia.
‡ The government had other social programs that may have included the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor. (35,58)
During the reporting period, the MoWECP and UNICEF launched the Prevention of Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse program, a 3-year partnership in response to key findings from a report by UNICEF, Interpol, and ECPAT, which found that 500,000 children between ages 12 and 17 reported being victims of online sexual exploitation between November 2020 to February 2021. (26)
Based on the reporting above, suggested actions are identified that would advance the elimination of child labor in Indonesia (Table 11).
| Area | Suggested Action | Year(s) Suggested |
|---|---|---|
| Legal Framework | Ensure that threats, the use of force, and coercion do not need to be established for the crime of child trafficking to be proven. | 2018 – 2022 |
| Ensure that the hazardous occupations and activities prohibited for children include sectors in which child labor is known to occur, including jockeying in horse racing. | 2019 – 2022 | |
| Ensure that the labor law’s light work provisions specify the activities in which light work may be permitted for children. | 2020 – 2022 | |
| Establish by law free basic public education by removing provisions that permit schools to charge fees. | 2020 – 2022 | |
| Enforcement | Ensure that labor inspectorate funding is sufficient to cover office infrastructure, transportation, and fuel requirements to enable labor inspectors to carry out inspections. | 2018 – 2022 |
| Increase the number of labor inspectors from 1,570 to 9,047 to provide adequate coverage of the labor force of approximately 135.7 million people. | 2010 – 2022 | |
| Ensure that labor inspectors have the legal authority to conduct inspections in the informal sector, including on private farms and homes, in which child labor often occurs. | 2018 – 2022 | |
| Ensure that all criminal law enforcement personnel receive adequate training on child labor regulations and relevant criminal laws. | 2017 – 2022 | |
| Strengthen the inspection system by conducting unannounced inspections. | 2022 | |
| Publish criminal law enforcement information, including the number of investigations conducted, prosecutions initiated, convictions achieved, and penalties imposed for violations relating to child labor, including its worst forms. | 2009 – 2022 | |
| Provide resources to collect and centralize national data on child labor, making reporting by precincts mandatory, and specifying to which child labor crimes the collected data refers. | 2022 | |
| Sufficiently fund the anti-trafficking task forces at the national, provincial, and local levels to conduct investigations and carry out their intended mandates. | 2016 – 2022 | |
| Social Programs | Conduct research to determine the types of labor activities carried out by children, including in the construction and street work sectors, to inform social policies and programs. | 2014 – 2022 |
| Collect and publish prevalence data on child laborers between the ages of 5 and 10. | 2019 – 2022 | |
| Enhance efforts to eliminate barriers to education, including ensuring that all children are able to obtain a government-sponsored identification card so they can attend school. | 2016 – 2022 | |
| Ensure that the most recent source of government child labor data is used consistently across all ministries to inform programs. | 2022 | |
| Ensure that activities are undertaken to implement the Minimum Service Standards of Basic Education Program and make information about implementation publicly available. | 2022 | |
| Ensure that activities are undertaken to implement the Community Learning Centers and make information about implementation publicly available. | 2022 |
- UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Gross intake ratio to the last grade of primary education, both sexes (%). Accessed March 15, 2023. For more information, please see "Children's Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions" in the Reference Materials section of this report.
http://data.uis.unesco.org/. - ILO Analysis of Child Economic Activity and School Attendance Statistics from National Household or Child Labor Surveys. Original data from National Labor Force Survey (Sakernas), 2010. Analysis received March 2023. Please see “Children's Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions” in the Reference Materials section of this report.
- Gottwald, Eric. Certifying Exploitation: Why "Sustainable" Palm Oil Production is Failing Workers. New Labor Forum, 2018. Source on file.
- Mason, Margie, and Robin McDowell. Palm oil labor abuses linked to world's top brands, banks. Associated Press, September 24, 2020.
https://apnews.com/article/virus-outbreak-only-on-ap-indonesia-financial-markets-malaysia-7b634596270cc6aa7578a062a30423bb - Mason, Margie, and Robin McDowell. Rape, abuses in palm oil fields linked to top beauty brands. Associated Press, November 18, 2020.
https://apnews.com/article/palm-oil-abuse-investigation-cosmetics-2a209d60c42bf0e8fcc6f8ea6daa11c7 - Transnational Palm Oil Labour Solidarity. Labour Rights Violation in the Global Supply Chain of the Palm Oil Industry. November 26, 2020.
https://palmoillabour.network/labour-rights-violation-in-the-global-supply-chain-of-the-palm-oil-industry-2/ - McDowell, Robin, and Margie Mason. Child labor in palm oil industry tied to Girl Scout cookies. Associated Press, December 30, 2020.
https://apnews.com/article/palm-oil-forests-indonesia-scouts-83b01f2789e9489569960da63b2741c4?utm_source=Twitter&utm_medium=AP&utm_campaign=SocialFlow&fbclid=IwAR2uNLgXdj8owo3aj6rFIQrCTQg5pBRPMhfkL_mwfRe2xNs2Y1aeEV9Hnvs - U.S. Embassy- Jakarta. Reporting. January 26, 2023.
- U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report- 2022: Indonesia. Washington, D.C., July 19, 2022.
https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/indonesia/ - U.S. Embassy- Jakarta. Reporting. January 10, 2022.
- U.S. Embassy- Jakarta. Reporting. January 16, 2018.
- Andrina, Michelle, et. al. Baseline Study on Child Labour in Tobacco-Growing Areas in Indonesia. Jakarta: The SMERU Research Institute, June 2020.
https://smeru.or.id/en/publication/baseline-study-child-labour-tobacco-growing-areas-indonesia - Simangunsong, Tonggo. ‘We Hide While Working’: The Life of Children Spraying Poison on a Pulp Plantation. VICE, May 4, 2022.
https://www.vice.com/en/article/jgm7qb/child-labour-plantations-indonesia - Bakumsu. Investigasi Perbudakan Di Perkebunan Kayu Toba Pulp Lestari. Medan: August 6, 2021.
https://bakumsu.or.id/en/investigasi-perbudakan-di-perkebunan-kayu-toba-pulp-lestari/ - ILO CEACR. Observation concerning Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention 1999 (No. 182) Indonesia (ratification: 2000). 2019. Source on file.
- U.S. Embassy- Jakarta. Reporting. February 24, 2021.
- Yulisman, Linda. Covid-19 pandemic pushes more into child labour in Indonesia. Jakarta: The Straits Times, March 9, 2021.
https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/covid-19-pandemic-pushes-more-into-child-labour-in-indonesia - U.S. Embassy- Jakarta. Reporting. January 22, 2021.
- U.S. Embassy- Jakarta. Reporting. December 21, 2021.
- U.S. Embassy- Jakarta. Reporting. March 25, 2020.
- Gettleman, Jeffrey, and Suhasini Raj. As Covid-19 Closes Schools, the World’s Children Go to Work. Tumakuru, India: New York Times, September 27, 2020.
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/27/world/asia/covid-19-india-children-school-education-labor.html - Noren, Nicole, and Van Zeller, Mariana. The world of Sumbawa's child jockeys. ESPN.com, June 7, 2019.
https://www.espn.com/horse-racing/story/_/id/26788616/the-world-sumbawa-child-jockeys - Dean, Adam. For Indonesia's Child Jockeys, Time to Retire at 10, After 5 Years of Racing. The New York Times, August 24, 2019.
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/24/world/asia/indonesia-sumbawa-child-jockeys-horse-racing.html - U.S. Embassy- Jakarta. Reporting. February 14, 2022.
- ILO CEACR. Observation concerning Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention 1999 (No. 182) Indonesia (ratification: 2000). Published: 2023.
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID,P13100_COUNTRY_ID:4314915,102938 - UNICEF. Up to 56 per cent of online child sexual exploitation and abuse in Indonesia goes undisclosed and unreported, according to new survey. Jakarta: UNICEF Indonesia, July 23, 2022.
https://www.unicef.org/indonesia/press-releases/56-cent-online-child-sexual-exploitation-and-abuse-indonesia-goes-undisclosed-and - ECPAT, INTERPOL, and UNICEF. Disrupting Harm in Indonesia: Evidence on sexual exploitation and abuse. 2022.
https://www.end-violence.org/sites/default/files/2022-09/DH_Indonesia_ONLINE_final.pdf - Lamb, Kate. 'I've been sick in the chest': Tobacco fields take toll on Indonesian children. The Guardian. June 26, 2018.
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jun/26/tobacco-indonesia-child-labour-harvest - U.S. Embassy- Jakarta official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. June 26, 2019.
- Government of Indonesia, Ministry of Women Empowerment and Child Protection. Indonesian Children's Profile. Jakarta: February 17, 2021.
https://www.kemenpppa.go.id/index.php/page/read/25/3056/profil-anak-indonesia-tahun-2020 - ILO. Indonesia to focus its child labour programme in rural area Jakarta: ILO, August 24, 2021.
https://www.ilo.org/jakarta/info/public/pr/WCMS_818148/lang--en/index.htm - Government of Indonesia. National Education System Act, No. 20. Enacted: 2003. Source on file.
- U.S. Department of State. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices- 2020: Indonesia. Washington, D.C., March 30, 2021.
https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/indonesia/ - U.S. Embassy- Jakarta. Reporting. February 6, 2019.
- UNICEF. The State of Children in Indonesia. May 2020.
https://www.unicef.org/indonesia/media/5041/file/The State of Children in Indonesia.pdf - Government of Indonesia. Act on the Ratification of ILO Convention 138 concerning Minimum Age for Admission to Employment, No. 20. Enacted: May 7, 1999.
http://fisipku.tripod.com/ipec/uuno20.htm - Government of Indonesia. Manpower Act, No. 13. Enacted: 2003.
http://www.ilo.org/dyn/travail/docs/760/Indonesian Labour Law - Act 13 of 2003.pdf - Government of Indonesia. Ministerial Decree on Jobs that Jeopardize the Health, Safety or Morals of Children, No. 235. Enacted: 2003. Source on file.
- Government of Indonesia. Law on the Eradication of the Criminal Act of Trafficking in Persons, No. 21. Enacted: 2007. Source on file.
- Government of Indonesia. Child Protection Act, No. 23. Enacted: 2002. Source on file.
- Government of Indonesia. Law on the Ratification of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, No. 10. Enacted: 2012. Source on file.
- Government of Indonesia. Law on Anti-Pornography, No. 44. Enacted: 2008. Source on file.
- Government of Indonesia. Penal Code. Enacted: 1999. Source on file.
- Government of Indonesia. Law on the Indonesian National Armed Forces, No. 34. Enacted: 2004. Source on file.
- Government of Indonesia. Law on the Ratification of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, No. 9. Enacted: 2012. Source on file.
- ILO. Labour Inspection Structure and Organization.
https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/safety-and-health-at-work/country-profiles/asia/indonesia/lang--en/index.htm - U.S. Embassy- Jakarta. Reporting. January 28, 2020.
- Government of Indonesia. Ministerial Regulation on Labor Supervision Procedures, No. 33. Enacted: November 17, 2016. Source on file.
- UN. World Economic Situation and Prospects 2022: Annex. 2022.
https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/WESP2022_ANNEX.pdf - ILOSTAT. ILO Labor Force Statistics (LFS) – Population and labour force. Accessed: January 31, 2023. Labor force data is government-reported data collected by the ILO. Please see "Labor Law Enforcement: Sources and Definitions" in the Reference Materials section of this report.
https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/ - U.S. Embassy- Jakarta official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. February 8, 2022.
- Indonesian Child Protection Commission (KPAI). Beranda | Komisi Perlindungan Anak Indonesia. Accessed: 2021.
https://www.kpai.go.id/ - U.S. Embassy- Jakarta official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. April 10, 2023.
- Government of Indonesia. The Decision of the President of the Republic of Indonesia, No. 59 of the Year 2002 on the National Plan of Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor. Enacted: 2002. Source on file.
- Government of Indonesia. Roadmap Towards a Child Labour-Free Indonesia in 2022. 2014.
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---ilo-jakarta/documents/publication/wcms_377170.pdf - Cabinet Secretariat of the Republic of Indonesia. Gov’t issues regulation on rights of child victims and witnesses. July 28, 2020.
https://setkab.go.id/en/govt-issues-regulation-on-rights-of-child-victims-and-witnesses/ - Government of Indonesia. Ministerial Regulation on Minimum Service Standard for Basic Education Program in the Municipality/Regency Level, No. 23/2013. Enacted: March 21, 2013. Source on file.
- ILO CEACR. Direct Request concerning Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention 1999 (No. 182) Indonesia (ratification: 2000). Published: 2023.
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID,P13100_COUNTRY_ID:4314912,102938
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