Child Labor and Forced Labor Reports
Eritrea
No Advancement – Efforts Made But Complicit in Forced Child Labor
In 2023, Eritrea is receiving an assessment of no advancement. Despite initiatives to address child labor, Eritrea is assessed as having made no advancement because it demonstrated complicity in the use of forced child labor. Government officials continued to force students in grade 12, some of whom are under the age of 18, to participate in military training elements of the government's compulsory national service program. In addition, high school students are forced to participate in maetot, a government-mandated month-long agricultural work program, for little to no pay. Failure to participate in the program results in immediate expulsion from school. Otherwise, the government revived the Early Childhood Care and Education Team at the Ministry of Education, which worked with local nongovernmental organizations to enroll students in childhood care and education programs. Additionally, the government renewed the Education Sector Development Plan, which establishes free and compulsory education for all children in elementary school and middle school, and expands access to education to nomadic communities through the provision of portable classrooms. However, Eritrea's minimum age protections do not apply to children working outside formal employment relationships. In addition, Eritrea’s laws–including its existing Penal Code of 1957–do not criminally prohibit the use of a child for prostitution; the use, procuring, or offering of a child in illicit activities; or the procuring or offering of a child for pornography or pornographic performances. Moreover, the government did not publicly release information on its criminal or labor law enforcement efforts.
| Children | Age | Percent of Population |
|---|---|---|
| Working | 5 to 14 | Unavailable |
| Hazardous Work by Children | 15 to 17 | Unavailable |
| Attending School | 5 to 14 | Unavailable |
| Combining Work and School | 7 to 14 | Unavailable |
| Sector/Industry | Activity |
|---|---|
| Agriculture | Farming and herding livestock. |
| Industry | Working in small-scale manufacturing, including recycling, remanufacturing, and repurposing metal. |
| Services | Street work including vending and begging, and domestic work including fetching water and firewood. Working in auto mechanic shops, grocery stores, the Asmara bowling alley, and open markets. |
| Categorical Worst Forms of Child Labor‡ | Forced agricultural work and compulsory participation in national service or military training associated with national service prior to age 18. |
‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.
In order to graduate from high school and meet the compulsory training component of national service prescribed by the Proclamation on National Service No. 82/1995, students are required to complete their final year of schooling (grade 12) at the Warsay Yikealo Secondary School located at the Sawa military complex. Each year, 11,000 to 15,000 students enter grade 12 at Sawa, and while many of these students have typically reached age 18 by the time they participate in the military training component of 12th grade schooling, some are reportedly as young as age 16. The mandatory military training includes military discipline and procedures, weapons training, a survival exercise, and a 2- to 4- week war simulation, and some conscripts are forced to perform agricultural labor on government-owned farms. During their time at Sawa, students endure notoriously harsh conditions and corruption, including allegations of military commanders offering food and better treatment to female students in exchange for sexual acts. Further, high school students are forced to participate in maetot, a government-mandated month-long agricultural work program, for little to no pay. Failure to participate in the program results in immediate expulsion from school.
Without completion of (and official release from) national service assignments, Eritrean children face a future of indefinite national service. These factors underlie an ongoing exodus of unaccompanied minors from the country. Adolescent children, some as young as age 14, who attempted to leave Eritrea were sometimes detained or forced to undergo military training, despite being younger than the minimum age of 18 for compulsory military recruitment. In addition, there have been reports that giffas—house-to-house military roundups used to identify Eritreans who are trying, or perceived as trying, to evade or escape national service—have resulted in the imprisonment or forced conscription of children.
Children at Higher Risk
Unhoused and unaccompanied children in Eritrea are particularly vulnerable to child labor. These children, especially those above the age of 14, are also disproportionately forced into military training or conscription by government officials. In addition, displaced Sudanese children with temporary residence living along the Eritrea-Sudan border are more likely to fall victim to child labor as they do not receive assistance from the government.
Barriers to Education Access
Children, particularly in rural areas, face numerous barriers to education access, including a lack of access to teachers, as well as a lack of transportation to schools for some students, which may increase their vulnerability to child labor.
| Standard | Age | Meets International Standards | Legislation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Minimum Age for Work | 14 | ✗ | Articles 3 and 68 of the Labor Proclamation |
| Minimum Age for Hazardous Work | ✗ | Articles 3, 35, and 69 of the Labor Proclamation | |
| Identification of Hazardous Occupations or Activities Prohibited for Children | ✗ | Article 69 of the Labor Proclamation | |
| Prohibition of Slavery, Debt Bondage, and Forced Labor | ✗ | Articles 3 and 9 of the Labor Proclamation; Articles 565 and 570 of the Penal Code of 1957 | |
| Prohibition of Child Trafficking | ✗ | Articles 565, and 605–607 of the Penal Code of 1957 | |
| Prohibition of Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children | ✗ | Articles 604–607, 609, and 610 of the Penal Code of 1957 | |
| Prohibition of Using Children in Illicit Activities | ✗ | ||
| Minimum Age for Voluntary State Military Recruitment | ✗ | ||
| Prohibition of Compulsory Recruitment of Children by (State) Military | ✓ | Articles 6 and 8 of the Proclamation on National Service | |
| Prohibition of Military Recruitment by Non-state Armed Groups | ✗ | ||
| Compulsory Education Age | 14‡ | ✗ | |
| Free Public Education | ✗ |
‡ Age calculated based on available information
The Labor Proclamation's minimum age protections do not apply to children working outside formal employment relationships, such as those who are self-employed, which does not conform to international standards requiring all children to be protected by the minimum age to work. In addition, Article 69 of the Labor Proclamation authorizes the Minister of Labor to issue a list of activities prohibited to children under age 18; however, the government has not determined by national law or regulation the types of hazardous work prohibited for children. Likewise, the Labor Proclamation’s hazardous work protections do not apply to children working outside formal employment relationships. Laws prohibiting slavery, debt bondage, and forced labor are insufficient because they do not criminally prohibit practices similar to slavery or debt bondage/servitude/serfdom.
Laws governing the use of children in illicit activities are not sufficient because the existing Penal Code does not explicitly criminally prohibit the use, procuring, or offering of a child for the production and trafficking of drugs. Current laws regarding the commercial sexual exploitation of children are also insufficient because the use of a child for prostitution is not criminally prohibited, nor is the use, procuring or offering a child for pornography or for pornographic performances. While the Proclamation on National Service No. 82/1995 requires compulsory national service from all citizens ages 18 to 40, the law is silent on voluntary military service, and thus places no explicit limitations on the voluntary recruitment of children under age 18 into the national armed forces.
Eritrea does not appear to have any laws guaranteeing free basic education or setting the compulsory education age, increasing the risk of children's involvement in child labor. However, several government policies provide free and compulsory basic education to all children below the age of 14, including the Education Sector Development Plan and the Comprehensive National Child Policy.
| Organization/Agency | Role & Activities |
|---|
| Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare (MoLSW): Enforces labor laws and investigates labor abuses, including child labor, through its Labor Inspection Division. |
| Eritrean Police: Enforce laws and investigate referred cases of child trafficking, commercial sexual exploitation of children, and the use of children in illicit activities. |
| Overview of Enforcement Efforts | 2023 |
|---|---|
| Has a Labor Inspectorate | Yes |
| Able to Assess Civil Penalties | Yes |
| Routinely Conducted Worksite Inspections | Unknown |
| Unannounced Inspections Permitted | Yes |
| Has a Complaint Mechanism | Unknown |
| Imposed Penalties for Child Labor Violations | Unknown |
| Conducted Criminal Investigations for Worst Forms of Child Labor Crimes | Unknown |
| Imposed Penalties for Worst Forms of Child Labor Crimes | Unknown |
It is unknown how many labor inspectors conducted worksite inspections, or whether child labor violations were found. It is unknown whether investigations into suspected cases of the worst forms of child labor were conducted, prosecutions were initiated, or perpetrators were convicted.
| Coordinating Body | Role & Activities |
|---|
| Interagency Steering Committee on Trafficking and Migration: Aims to prevent and address human trafficking among vulnerable groups, including children. Includes representatives from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, MoLSW, the national police, the Immigration and Nationality Department, the National Union of Eritrean Women, and the National Union of Eritrean Youth and Students. Research was unable to determine whether the Committee took actions to address or prevent child labor during the reporting period. |
| Policy | Description & Activities |
|---|
| Comprehensive National Child Policy: Addresses underlying causes of child labor through studies and assessments on the nature and conditions of child labor, designs advocacy and public awareness campaigns on the worst forms of child labor, and empowers communities and the public sector to monitor and prevent child labor from occurring. The policy calls for the provision of free and compulsory basic education to all children, irrespective of gender, sex, ethnicity, religion, or disability. The policy outlines the creation of a National Action Plan for the elimination of child labor, but this plan has not been drafted, leaving children vulnerable to the worst forms of child labor. Although reports suggest that components of the policy are being implemented, research was unable to identify activities undertaken to implement the policy during the reporting period. |
| Program | Description & Activities |
|---|
| Complementary Elementary Education:† Program created by the government in partnership with UNICEF in 2007 that addresses the educational needs of out-of-school children ages 9 to 14 in remote and rural areas by condensing 5 years of elementary education into a 3-year program to allow students to either integrate into formal education at the secondary level or access vocational education. Although research suggests that the program was active during the reporting period, research was unable to identify activities undertaken to implement the program during the reporting period. |
| Better Migration Management: EU-led program encompassing 11 countries in North, Central, and East Africa; aims to address the international labor market, including the trafficking of children. Research was unable to determine whether activities were undertaken to implement the program during the reporting period. |
| Education Sector Development Plan (2022–2026): Establishes free and compulsory education for all children in elementary school and middle school. Includes a strategy to ensure equitable access to education for all children, including in nomadic communities, through the provision of portable classrooms. The plan, originally set to expire in 2022, was renewed during the reporting period. |
For information about USDOL’s projects to address child labor around the world, visit https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/ilab-project-page-search
† Program is funded by the Government of Eritrea.
‡ The government had other policies that may have addressed child labor issues or had an impact on child labor.
| Area | Suggested Action |
|---|---|
| Legal Framework | Extend minimum age protections to all children working outside of formal employment relationships, including those who are self-employed. |
| Determine the types of hazardous work prohibited for children and ensure that all children are protected by hazardous work prohibitions, including children in the informal sector and those working outside of formal employment relationships. | |
| Criminally prohibit the use, procuring, and offering of a child for illicit activities. | |
| Criminally prohibit the use of a child for prostitution, and the use, procurement, and offering of a child for pornography and pornographic performances. | |
| Establish by law the age of 16 as the minimum age for voluntary recruitment by the state military, with safeguards for voluntariness, and criminally prohibit the recruitment of children under the age of 18 by non-state armed groups. | |
| Criminally prohibit practices similar to slavery or debt bondage/servitude/serfdom. | |
| Establish by law free basic public education, and establish by law an age up to which education is compulsory that extends to 14 years, the minimum age for employment. | |
| Enforcement | Cease the practice of imprisoning unhoused children and children discovered evading compulsory national service during military-led giffas. |
| Publish data related to labor law and criminal law enforcement. | |
| Publish activities undertaken by agencies responsible for child labor law enforcement to address child labor on an annual basis, including activities by the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare and the Eritrean Police. | |
| Coordination | Publish information on the Interagency Steering Committee on Trafficking and Migration's efforts to coordinate government activities to address human trafficking on an annual basis. |
| Establish a key coordinating mechanism to address all worst forms of child labor. | |
| Government Policies | Take actions to ensure that children under age 18 are not placed in military training or agricultural labor assignments as part of national service. |
| Cease government programs that force high school children to engage in agricultural labor and other public works as a requirement to enroll in school. | |
| Publish information on actions taken to implement government policies relevant to child labor, including the Comprehensive National Child Policy. | |
| Enact policies to address all forms of child labor using the framework outlined in the Comprehensive National Child Policy, including child labor in agriculture, manufacturing, the services industry, and armed groups. | |
| Social Programs | Collect and publish data on the extent and nature of child labor to inform policies and programs. |
| Enhance efforts to make education accessible for all children, including children in rural areas, by building schools and increasing transportation options in rural areas. | |
| Institute sufficient social programs to address child labor, including in agriculture, domestic work, street work, and the worst forms of child labor, including in commercial sexual exploitation. Ensure that these programs and efforts are accessible to all victims of exploitation, including Sudanese children living along the Eritrea-Sudan border. | |
| Publish information on actions taken to implement the Better Migration Management program and the Complementary Elementary Education Program on an annual basis. |
Trade unions are not allowed to operate freely in Eritrea, and the only legally recognized trade union is the government affiliated National Confederation of Eritrean Workers. The government has also arrested, detained, and intimidated labor activists and individuals who attempted to organize independently. These factors have created an environment where workers’ rights are routinely violated, workers earn sub-standard wages, and child labor often persists.