Child Labor and Forced Labor Reports
Egypt
Moderate Advancement
In 2022, Egypt made moderate advancement in efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labor. The government approved an updated National Strategy for Combating and Preventing Trafficking in Persons, which includes outcomes related to reducing child labor. The government also provided comprehensive criminal law enforcement data for inclusion in this report for the first time, and investigated 107 crimes involving 237 individuals, initiated 171 prosecutions, and achieved 70 convictions related to the worst forms of child labor. However, children in Egypt are subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including in commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking, and in quarrying limestone. The government did not publish data on its efforts to enforce its child labor laws, including labor inspectorate resources, number of child labor violations found, and penalties imposed for child labor violations. Additionally, programs to address child labor are insufficient to adequately address the extent of the problem, particularly the lack of targeted programming to prevent the commercial sexual exploitation of children and child labor in limestone quarrying.
Table 1 provides key indicators on children’s work and education in Egypt.
| Children | Age | Percent |
|---|---|---|
| Working (% and population) | 6 to 14 | 3.3 (583,290) |
| Working children by sector | 6 to 14 | |
| Agriculture | 10.4 | |
| Industry | 82.4 | |
| Services | 7.2 | |
| Attending School (%) | 6 to 14 | 96.6 |
| Combining Work and School (%) | 7 to 14 | 3.2 |
| Primary Completion Rate (%) | 66.1 |
Source for primary completion rate: Data from 2022, published by UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2023. (1)
Source for all other data: International Labor Organization's analysis of statistics from Labour Force Survey (LFS), 2020. (2)
Based on a review of available information, Table 2 provides an overview of children's work by sector and activity.
| Sector/Industry | Activity |
|---|---|
| Agriculture | Farming, including the production of cotton† (5) |
| Tending livestock and poultry (6,7) | |
| Fishing, activities unknown (6) | |
| Industry | Quarrying† limestone (5,7,9) |
| Making bricks (3-5,9,10) | |
| Working in carpentry workshops (6) | |
| Construction, activities unknown (4,5,10) | |
| Services | Domestic work (3-5,10,11) |
| Driving tuktuks (5) | |
| Repairing automobiles (3-5) | |
| Street work, including selling goods and collecting garbage (5) | |
| Categorical Worst Forms of Child Labor‡ | Forced domestic work (3,5,8,12) |
| Commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking (3-5,12-15) | |
| Forced begging (3,4,12) | |
| Trafficking of drugs, sometimes as a result of human trafficking (5,12,15) |
† Determined by national law or regulation as hazardous and, as such, relevant to Article 3(d) of ILO C. 182.
‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.
In Egypt, some children are forced by their immediate and extended families into sexual exploitation, begging, domestic work, and factory labor. (12,13) In addition, some girls are subjected to commercial sexual exploitation under the pretext of temporary marriage, sometimes called "summer marriage," to wealthy foreign men, mostly from Persian Gulf countries. (3-5)
Children in Egypt face barriers to education, including access to identity documentation and the associated costs of attending school, such as school fees. Enrolling in public school requires a certified birth certificate, which some children born out of wedlock or born to parents of differing religions lack. (5) Children also drop out of school because of school-related costs, such as educational supplies, transportation, and clothing. (6) A lack of qualified teachers, poorly maintained schools, sanitation issues, classroom density, insufficient infrastructure, and bullying in schools prevent some children from attending school. (3) In rural communities, children face difficulties getting to school due to long commuting distances. In addition, girls face additional barriers to education, especially in rural Egypt, including harassment on the way to school, as well as cultural barriers. (3,8)
The government offers refugee children access to the public education system; however, refugee children are subjected to racism and bullying, and face language barriers. In response, some non-Egyptians residing in the country, such as those from Sudan, have organized independent school systems unaffiliated with the government for their children. (3,16)
Egypt has ratified all key international conventions concerning child labor (Table 3).
| Convention | Ratification |
| ILO C. 138, Minimum Age | ✓ |
| ILO C. 182, Worst Forms of Child Labor | ✓ |
| UN CRC | ✓ |
| UN CRC Optional Protocol on Armed Conflict | ✓ |
| UN CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography | ✓ |
| Palermo Protocol on Trafficking in Persons | ✓ |
The government has established laws and regulations related to child labor (Table 4). However, gaps exist in Egypt’s legal framework to adequately protect children from the worst forms of child labor, including incomplete hazardous work prohibitions for children.
| Standard | Meets International Standards | Age | Legislation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Minimum Age for Work | Yes | 15 | Articles 64 and 74 of the Child Law (17) |
| Minimum Age for Hazardous Work | Yes | 18 | Articles 1 and 3 of Ministry of Manpower’s Decree 215; Articles 1 and 3 of the Child Law (17,32) |
| Identification of Hazardous Occupations or Activities Prohibited for Children | Yes | Articles 1, 3, and Table 1 of Ministry of Manpower’s Decree 215 (32) | |
| Prohibition of Forced Labor | Yes | Article 89 of the Constitution; Article 291 of the Penal Code; Articles 2 and 3 of the Law on Combating Human Trafficking (17,19,20) | |
| Prohibition of Child Trafficking | Yes | Article 89 of the Constitution; Article 291 of the Penal Code; Articles 2 and 3 of the Law on Combating Human Trafficking (17,19,20) | |
| Prohibition of Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children | Yes | Article 116-bis(a) of the Child Law; Article 291 of the Penal Code; Articles 2,3, 5, and 6 of the Law on Combating Human Trafficking; Articles 1–4 and 6 of the Law on the Combating of Prostitution (17,20,21) | |
| Prohibition of Using Children in Illicit Activities | Yes | Article 34 of the Law on Narcotics; Article 65 of the Child Law; Article 3 of Ministry of Manpower’s Decree 215 (17,22,32) | |
| Minimum Age for Voluntary State Military Recruitment | No | 15 | Ministry of Defense Guidelines on Youth Volunteers in the Armed Forces (23) |
| Prohibition of Compulsory Recruitment of Children by (State) Military | Yes | Article 1 of the Law on Military and National Service (24) | |
| Prohibition of Military Recruitment by Non-state Armed Groups | No | Article 7-bis(b) of the Child Law (17) | |
| Compulsory Education Age | Yes | 15‡ | Article 59(1) of the Child Law; Articles19, 80, and 238 of the Constitution (17,19) |
| Free Public Education | No | Article 54 of the Child Law (17) |
‡ Age calculated based on available information (17)
The minimum age for voluntary state military recruitment does not meet international standards as it is below age 16. (23) Additionally, the law does not criminally prohibit military recruitment by non-state armed groups. (17) While public education is free by law, there are still fees for attending which, if not met, disqualify students from sitting for final exams. Not completing final exams results in a failing grade. (5,17)
The government has established institutional mechanisms for the enforcement of laws and regulations on child labor (Table 5). However, gaps exist within the operations of enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate enforcement of their child labor laws.
| Organization/Agency | Role & Activities |
|---|---|
| Ministry of Manpower | Enforces child labor laws and regulations through its inspection department, including receiving and investigating child labor complaints. Inspectors conduct labor inspections and report violations to the police, which operate under the Ministry of Interior. (5) If police investigations confirm criminal activity, cases are subsequently sent to the Prosecutor General's Office (PGO), which operates under the Ministry of Justice. (5) |
| Ministry of Interior | Investigates cases of human trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation of children. Reports violations to the Public Prosecution Office under the PGO. (3,4) Also receives reports of violations from the Administrative Control Authority, which investigates government corruption and human trafficking. (3,25) |
| Ministry of Justice, Prosecutor General’s Office (PGO) | Prosecutes violations of laws related to the worst forms of child labor and human trafficking. (3,4) |
Labor Law Enforcement
In 2022, labor law enforcement agencies in Egypt took actions to address child labor (Table 6). However, gaps exist within the operations of the Ministry of Manpower that may hinder adequate labor law enforcement, including an insufficient number of inspectors.
| Overview of Labor Law Enforcement | 2021 | 2022 |
|---|---|---|
| Labor Inspectorate Funding | Unknown (26) | Unknown |
| Number of Labor Inspectors | Unknown (26) | Unknown |
| Mechanism to Assess Civil Penalties | No (26) | No (5) |
| Training for Labor Inspectors Provided | Unknown (26) | Yes (5) |
| Number of Labor Inspections Conducted at Worksite | Unknown (26) | Unknown |
| Number of Child Labor Violations Found | Unknown (26) | Unknown |
| Number of Child Labor Violations for Which Penalties Were Imposed | Unknown (26) | Unknown |
| Number of Child Labor Penalties Imposed that Were Collected | Unknown (26) | Unknown |
| Routine Inspections Conducted | Unknown (26) | Yes (5) |
| Routine Inspections Targeted | Unknown (26) | Unknown |
| Unannounced Inspections Permitted | Yes (26) | Yes (5) |
| Unannounced Inspections Conducted | Unknown (26) | Unknown |
| Complaint Mechanism Exists | Yes (26) | Yes (5) |
| Reciprocal Referral Mechanism Exists Between Labor Authorities and Social Services | Yes (26) | Yes (5) |
The government did not provide information on its labor law enforcement efforts specific to the worst forms of child labor for inclusion in this report. Although the number of labor inspectors is unknown, research indicates that Egypt does not have an adequate number of labor inspectors to carry out their mandated duties. (27)
Criminal Law Enforcement
In 2022, criminal law enforcement agencies in Egypt took actions to address child labor (Table 7). However, gaps exist within the operations of the enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate criminal law enforcement, including in financial resource allocation.
| Overview of Criminal Law Enforcement | 2021 | 2022 |
|---|---|---|
| Training for Criminal Investigators Provided | Unknown (26) | Yes (15) |
| Number of Investigations | Unknown (26) | 107 (15) |
| Number of Prosecutions Initiated | Unknown (26) | 161 (15) |
| Number of Convictions | Unknown (26) | 70 (15) |
| Imposed Penalties for Violations Related to the Worst Forms of Child Labor | Unknown (26) | Yes (15) |
| Reciprocal Referral Mechanism Exists Between Criminal Authorities and Social Services | Yes (26) | Yes (15) |
In 2022, Egyptian authorities investigated 107 crimes related to the worst forms of child labor involving 237 individuals. Crimes included commercial sexual exploitation and drug trafficking. (15)
The government has established a key mechanism to coordinate its efforts to address child labor (Table 8).
| Coordinating Body | Role & Activities |
|---|---|
| National Steering Committee for the National Action Plan to Eliminate the Worst Forms of Child Labor and Supporting Families | Coordinates efforts to implement the National Action Plan to Eliminate the Worst Forms of Child Labor and Supporting Families. Membership includes the Ministries of Manpower, Social Solidarity, Education, Agriculture, Interior, Planning, Finance, Investment and International Cooperation, Trade, Justice, Health, Local Development, and Awqaf, in addition to the National Council for Childhood and Motherhood (NCCM), the National Council of Women, the Central Agency for Population and Statistics, the National Media Agency, and Al Azhar University. (3,4) In 2022, the committee met four times. (28) |
The government has established relevant policies related to child labor (Table 9).
| Policy | Description & Activities |
|---|---|
| National Action Plan Against the Worst Forms of Child Labor and Supporting Family (2018–2025) | Aims to eliminate the worst forms of child labor by 2025 and identify roles of government agencies responsible for assisting child laborers. (3,8) Other objectives include expanding the child labor knowledge base; capacity building of agencies providing support; providing social protection, with links to existing programs; enhancing education, including vocational education for children; and advocacy and awareness raising. (10) Active in 2022. (15) |
| National Strategy for Combating and Preventing Trafficking in Persons (2022–2026) † | Aims to address trafficking in persons through prevention, prosecution, protection, and partnership. Includes goals such as empowering households to combat poverty and illiteracy, preventing school dropouts, and reducing child labor. (29) |
| National Strategy for Childhood and Motherhood (2018–2030) | Includes a child labor chapter that aims to promote dialogue on child labor legislation, including updating the hazardous work list; building the capacity of relevant government agencies, such the Ministry of Manpower and NCCM; developing programs to address child labor; and expanding educational and vocational training opportunities. (3,6) Active in 2022. (14) |
† Policy was approved during the reporting period.
In 2022, the government funded and participated in programs that include the goal of eliminating child labor (Table 10). However, gaps exist in these social programs, including the inadequacy of programs to address the full scope of the problem.
| Program | Description & Activities |
|---|---|
| Solidarity and Dignity Program (Takaful and Karama)† | Funded by the Ministry of Social Solidarity (MoSS), this program promotes school attendance and health monitoring for children by providing income supplements to poor families. (3,6) This partnership between the government and the WFP, the UNDP, UNICEF, and the World Bank offers income supplements to poor families under the conditions that household children maintain at least an 80 percent attendance record in school and that mothers and children under age 6 provide demonstrable evidence of having been seen at health clinics four times per year. (3) In 2022, the number of families receiving assistance increased from 4.1 million to more than 5 million. (30) |
| Ministry of Social Solidarity Centers for Combating Child Labor† | MoSS-run centers, operated by partner NGOs, to provide services to children and their families. Consisting of 17 centers across 14 governorates. (28) In 2022, MoSS centers provided services to 600 children and their families. (28) |
| ACCEL Africa (2018–2023) | Aims to eliminate child labor in the cotton, textiles, and ready-made-garments sectors; implemented by the ILO and funded by the Dutch government. ACCEL Africa- Egypt partners with the Ministries of Manpower, Education, and Agriculture, as well as MoSS and NCCM, to improve policy, legal, and institutional frameworks. (31) Active in 2022. (5) |
For information about USDOL’s projects to address child labor around the world, visit https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/ilab-project-page-search
† Program is funded by the Government of Egypt.
Although Egypt has programs that target child labor, the scope of these programs is insufficient to fully address the extent of the problem, particularly for commercial sexual exploitation and quarrying limestone.
Based on the reporting above, suggested actions are identified that would advance the elimination of child labor in Egypt (Table 11).
| Area | Suggested Action | Year(s) Suggested |
|---|---|---|
| Legal Framework | Ensure that the law establishes age 16 as the minimum age for voluntary recruitment by the state military with safeguards for voluntariness. | 2019 – 2022 |
| Ensure that there are criminal penalties for recruitment of children by non-state armed groups. | 2022 | |
| Ensure that the law prohibits school fees for the first nine years of education. | 2022 | |
| Enforcement | Publish information on civil child labor law enforcement, including labor inspectorate funding, number of labor inspectors, training for labor inspectors, number of labor inspections conducted, number of child labor violations found, number of penalties imposed for child labor violations, number of penalties that were collected, whether routine inspections were conducted and whether they were targeted, and whether unannounced inspections were conducted. | 2011 – 2022 |
| Establish a mechanism to assess civil penalties for violations of child labor laws that are not considered criminal. | 2017 – 2022 | |
| Employ at least 1,897 labor inspectors to ensure adequate coverage of the labor force of approximately 28.5 million people. | 2018 – 2022 | |
| Social Programs | Ensure universal access to free public education, especially for girls and refugee children, by addressing the cost of school fees, supplies, violence in schools, lack of documentation, and other barriers to education. | 2010 – 2022 |
| Expand programs to address the full scope of the child labor problem, particularly targeted programming to prevent and address child commercial sexual exploitation and limestone quarrying. | 2010 – 2022 |
- UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Gross intake ratio to the last grade of primary education, both sexes (%). Accessed March 15, 2023. For more information, please see "Children's Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions" in the Reference Materials section of this report.
http://data.uis.unesco.org/ - ILO. Analysis of Labour Force Survey (LFS), 2020. Analysis received March 2023. Please see "Children's Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions" in the Reference Materials section of this report.
- U.S. Embassy- Cairo. Reporting. January 14, 2021.
- U.S. Embassy- Cairo. Reporting. January 14, 2020.
- U.S. Embassy- Cairo. Reporting. March 7, 2023.
- U.S. Embassy- Cairo. Reporting. January 31, 2019.
- Al Monitor. Child labor assumes fatal proportions in Egypt. January 18, 2022.
https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2022/01/child-labor-assumes-fatal-proportions-egypt - U.S. Embassy- Cairo. Reporting. January 22, 2018.
- Emam, Amr. Egypt moves against worst forms of child labour, measures not enough. The Arab Weekly, July 15, 2018.
https://thearabweekly.com/egypt-moves-against-worst-forms-child-labour-measures-not-enough - Ministry of Manpower. National Action Plan for Combating the Worst Forms of Child Labour in Egypt and Supporting Family (2018–2025). June 2018.
https://www.ilo.org/ipec/Informationresources/WCMS_IPEC_PUB_30375/lang--en/index.htm - Salama, Samir. Egypt: Two working children subjected to horrific torture. Gulf News, August 25, 2020.
https://gulfnews.com/world/mena/egypt-two-working-children-subjected-to-horrific-torture-1.73402420 - U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report- 2021: Egypt. Washington, D.C., July 1, 2021.
https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-trafficking-in-persons-report/egypt/ - U.S. Embassy- Cairo. Reporting. February 16, 2021.
- U.S. Embassy- Cairo. Reporting. February 14, 2023.
- U.S. Embassy- Cairo. Reporting. March 16, 2023.
- U.S. Embassy- Cairo. Official communication to USDOL official. July 6, 2022.
- Government of Egypt. Child Law, Promulgated by Law No. 12 of 1996 (amended by Law No. 126 of 2008), also amending the Penal Code, Law No 58 of 1937. Enacted: 2008. Source on file.
- Government of Egypt. Ministry of Manpower and Migration Decree 118 of the Year 2003. Enacted: 2003. Source on file.
- Government of Egypt. Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt 2014- unofficial translation. Enacted: January 18, 2014.
http://www.sis.gov.eg/Newvr/Dustor-en001.pdf - Government of Egypt. Law No. 64 of 2010 regarding Combating Human Trafficking. Enacted: 2010. Source on file.
- Government of Egypt. Law No. 10 of 1961, on the Combating of Prostitution. 1961.
http://www.refworld.org/docid/5492d8784.html - Government of Egypt. Law on Narcotics No. 182. Enacted: June 5, 1960. Source on file.
- Government of Egypt, Ministry of Defense. Guidelines on Youth Volunteers in the Armed Forces. Cairo. Source on file.
- Government of Egypt. Law No. 127 on Military and National Service. Enacted: 1980. Source on file.
- U.S. Embassy- Cairo official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. June 27, 2019.
- U.S. Embassy- Cairo. Reporting. March 22, 2022.
- ILOSTAT. ILO Labor Force Statistics (LFS) – Population and labour force. Accessed (January 31, 2023). Labor force data is government-reported data collected by the ILO. Please see "Labor Law Enforcement: Sources and Definitions" in the Reference Materials section of this report.
https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/ - U.S. Embassy- Cairo. Official communication to USDOL official. July 3, 2023.
- Government of Egypt. National Strategy for Combating and Preventing Trafficking in Persons. 2022.
https://www.nccpimandtip.gov.eg/en/Awareness/6 - Egypt Independent. Up to 5 million Egyptian families now benefit from ‘Takaful and Karama’ pensions. October 3, 2022.
https://egyptindependent.com/up-to-5-million-egyptian-families-now-benefit-from-takaful-and-karama-pensions/ - ILO. Accelerating Action for the Elimination of Child Labour in Supply Chains in Africa. November 2018.
https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---africa/---ro-abidjan/documents/genericdocument/wcms_717664.pdf - Government of Egypt. Ministry of Manpower and Migration Decree 215 of the Year 2021. Enacted: 2021. Source on file.
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