Child Labor and Forced Labor Reports
Burma
No Advancement – Efforts Made But Complicit in Forced Child Labor
In 2024, Burma is receiving an assessment of no advancement. Despite initiatives to address child labor, Burma is assessed as having made no advancement because it demonstrated complicity in the use of forced child labor. Burma's military continued to force civilians, including children, to work in both combat roles and non-combat roles as porters, cleaners, cooks, and agricultural laborers in conflict areas. Military regime-affiliated armed groups also reportedly provided security for transnational crime groups operating in Burma that facilitate the commercial sexual exploitation of children. The Myanmar National Committee on Elimination of Child Labor conducted a coordination meeting during the reporting period. However, the military regime's policies and practices continued to limit children's access to education, as schools only provide classes in Burmese. Rohingya children were denied national identity cards, which are required to register for school, and authorities imposed movement restrictions that prevented Rohingya children from attending school. Burma has not published a list of hazardous work activities prohibited for children, as required by the Child Rights Law. Finally, it is not known whether agencies that enforce labor laws or those that enforce criminal laws took actions to address child labor during the reporting period.
| Children | Age | Percent and Population |
|---|---|---|
| Working | 5 to 14 | 0.4% (39,370) |
| Hazardous Work by Children | 15 to 17 | Unavailable |
| Attending School | 5 to 14 | 95.3% |
| Combining Work and School | 7 to 14 | 0.1% |
| Sector/Industry | Percent of Population |
|---|---|
| Agriculture | 57.5% |
| Industry | 11.2% |
| Services | 31.3% |
| Sector/Industry | Activity |
|---|---|
| Agriculture | Fishing and farming, including rubber, sugarcane, beans (green, soy, yellow), rice, and bamboo. Forestry, including on teak plantations. |
| Industry | Construction, brickmaking, producing garments, and quarrying and mining goods, including jade and rubies. |
| Services | Domestic work, collecting garbage and recyclables, repairing and washing cars, and vending, including selling fish and shrimp. Working in teashops, restaurants, karaoke bars, and massage parlors. |
| Categorical Worst Forms of Child Labor‡ | Forced recruitment of children by state and non-state armed groups for use in armed conflict. Forcible recruitment by the military for combat and non-combat roles such as portering, cooking, farming, construction, and camp maintenance. Forced use of children in illicit activities, including in the transportation of drugs. Forced labor in agriculture, including in the farming of beans (green, soy, yellow), bamboo, rice, rubber, and sugarcane, sometimes perpetrated by armed groups in conflict-affected areas. Forced labor in brick manufacturing, teashops, restaurants, online gambling, domestic work, construction, fishing, begging, and forestry, including on teak plantations. Commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking. |
‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.
In 2024, the national military continued to force children and other civilians to work in combat and non-combat roles, including portering, cooking, camp maintenance, farming, and other activities. During the reporting period, nearly 500 children were verified as recruited and used by armed forces, including border guards, non-state armed groups, and People's Defense Forces (opposition militias fighting the regime military). In addition, civilian brokers with military connections sometimes altered birthdates on identity documents to facilitate the entry of underage recruits into the military, and family members, including children of military personnel, have been forced to receive military training.
Children at Higher Risk
Since the military perpetuated genocide against Rohingya people in northern Rakhine State in August 2017, over 742,000 Rohingya—half of whom are children—fled from Burma to Bangladesh. As a consequence of ongoing violence, Rohingya children residing in camps are at an increased risk of the worst forms of child labor, including forced labor and sex trafficking, due to the lack of schools and school closures. Reports indicate that since the enforcement in 2024 of Burma's conscription law, the military has abducted and forcibly recruited over 1,000 Rohingya men and boys for use in armed conflict. Children, particularly girls, leave camps for countries such as Malaysia for marriages, but often find themselves in situations of forced labor, including in domestic work.
Barriers to Education Access
Costs associated with travel to schools located long distances away, a lack of schools and teachers, extra fees charged by teachers and schools, and prohibitive expenses for uniforms, books, and transportation present barriers for school attendance in Burma. Children who speak languages other than Burmese face barriers to education because the curriculum is only taught in the Burmese language. Military forces and opposition armed forces have occupied and attacked schools, making students and teachers afraid to attend. Many parents in Burma have stopped sending their children to school due to active fighting, armed forces checkpoints on the way to school where children may be harassed, and the conscription of older schoolchildren. Some parents send their children to monasteries and convents for school, hoping to avoid violence in and around military-run schools. In these religious facilities, some children are subjected to child labor, in which they work long hours, experience poor treatment and abuse, and receive insufficient schooling and nutrition. Moreover, although Burmese law guarantees education for all children, in practice, only children with national identification cards are allowed to attend school, and Rohingya are often denied nationality identity cards due to regime policies.
| Standard | Age | Meets International Standards | Legislation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Minimum Age for Work | 14 | ✓ | Chapter XIV, Section 48(b) of the Child Rights Law; Section 75 of the Factories Act; Article 14 of the Shops and Establishments Law |
| Minimum Age for Hazardous Work | 18 | ✓ | Chapter 1, Sections 3(b) and 3(t)(4), Chapter XIV, Section 48(a), and Chapter XXVII, Section 103(a)(3) of the Child Rights Law |
| Identification of Hazardous Occupations or Activities Prohibited for Children | ✗ | Sections 25 and 29 of the Factories Act; Article 14(d) of the Shops and Establishments Law; Rule 146 of the 2018 Mining Rules | |
| Prohibition of Slavery, Debt Bondage, and Forced Labor | ✓ | Chapter I, Section 3(t) and Chapter XXVII, Sections 103(a)(2) and 106 of the Child Rights Law; Sections 3(c) and 25 of the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Law; Sections 370, 371, and 374 of the Penal Code; Section 27(a) of the Ward or Village Tract Administrative Law | |
| Prohibition of Child Trafficking | ✓ | Chapter I, Section 3(s)–(t), Chapter XVII, Sections 103 and 106, and Chapter XVIII, Section 66 of the Child Rights Law; Sections 3, 25, 26, and 35 of the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Law; Sections 372 and 366(a) of the Penal Code | |
| Prohibition of Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children | ✓ | Sections 3, 66, and 105(b) of the Child Rights Law; Sections 372 and 373 of the Penal Code | |
| Prohibition of Using Children in Illicit Activities | ✗ | Chapter 1, Section 3(t)(3) and Chapter XIV, Section 48(a) of the Child Rights Law; Sections 20(a) and 22(c) of the Narcotics and Psychotropic Substances Law | |
| Minimum Age for Voluntary State Military Recruitment | 18 | ✓ | Chapter XVII, Section 63(a–b) of the Child Rights Law; Part I of People's Military Service Law; 1974 Regulation for Persons Subject to the Defense Services Act (War Office Council Instruction 13/73) |
| Prohibition of Compulsory Recruitment of Children by (State) Military | ✓ | Chapter XVII, Section 63(a) of the Child Rights Law; Part 1, Section 2(b) of the People's Military Service Law | |
| Prohibition of Military Recruitment by Non-state Armed Groups | ✓ | Chapter XVII, Section 64(a–b) and Chapter XXVII, Section 104(b) of the Child Rights Law | |
| Compulsory Education Age | 11‡ | ✗ | Chapter XIV, Section 48(b) of the Child Rights Law; Section 4(j) of the National Education Law |
| Free Public Education | ✓ | Chapter XIII, Section 46(b) of the Child Rights Law; Articles 14(a) and 16(a) of the National Education Law |
‡ Age calculated based on available information
Although Burmese law prohibits persons under the age of 18 from joining the armed forces, research indicates that the regime does not take action to enforce this. Burma has higher penalties for perpetrators who use children in the production or trafficking of drugs; however, the law defines children as those under age 16, while international standards regarding illicit activities define children as those below the age of 18. Moreover, although Burma's Child Rights Law mandates the creation of a hazardous work list, Burma has not published such a list. School is only required for children through age 10, though the minimum age for work is 14. This does not meet international standards because the compulsory schooling age does not match the minimum age for work, rendering children vulnerable to the worst forms of child labor.
| Organization/Agency | Role & Activities |
|---|
| Ministry of Labor – Factories and General Labor Laws Inspection Department (FGLLID): Inspects factories, shops, and establishments for child labor violations. Only mandated to inspect for child labor in manufacturing establishments and factories as laid out in the Factories Law (1951) and the Shops and Establishment Law (2016). Certain sectors in which child labor is reported to occur—including agriculture, construction, mining, and fishing—are outside the purview of FGLLID and are, therefore, not subject to inspections. Although an unknown number of inspections reportedly occurred, there are reports of employers being notified before the inspections and training specific workers to answer inspectors' questions in a manner favorable to the employer. Reports indicate that training for labor inspectors is insufficient, and there is a lack of funding to cover transportation and equipment for labor inspections. When labor inspections do occur, they are generally limited to Burma's major urban centers, leaving children in remote rural areas unprotected. |
| Ministry of Home Affairs – Myanmar Police Force, Anti-Trafficking in Persons Division (ATIPD): Investigates human trafficking crimes and engages in prevention efforts through its 32 regional Anti-Trafficking Task Force police units. Also oversees three specialized Child Protection Units in Rangoon, Mandalay, and Nay Pyi Daw to address child exploitation cases, including child trafficking, and uses formal written procedures to screen victims. ATIPD is mandated to operate nine 24/7 hotlines for reporting human trafficking cases. Reports indicate that ATIPD no longer performs trafficking in persons victim identification procedures as required under the 2022 Anti-Trafficking in Persons Law. Children identified in the worst forms of child labor were detained and arrested by police, rather than being referred to appropriate victim support services. |
| Overview of Enforcement Efforts | 2024 |
|---|---|
| Has a Labor Inspectorate | Yes |
| Able to Assess Civil Penalties | Yes |
| Routinely Conducted Worksite Inspections | Unknown |
| Unannounced Inspections Permitted | Yes |
| Has a Complaint Mechanism | Unknown |
| Imposed Penalties for Child Labor Violations | Unknown |
| Conducted Criminal Investigations for Worst Forms of Child Labor Crimes | Unknown |
| Imposed Penalties for Worst Forms of Child Labor Crimes | Unknown |
In 2024, 143 labor inspectors conducted an unknown number of worksite inspections, and it is unknown whether child labor violations were found. It is also unknown whether investigations into suspected cases of the worst forms of child labor were conducted, prosecutions were initiated, or perpetrators were convicted.
| Coordinating Body | Role & Activities |
|---|
| National Committee on the Elimination of Child Labor: Oversees 36 committees at the local level that work to address child labor issues. Chaired by the State Administration Council Member Union Minister for Home Affairs. Though the Committee met during the reporting period and discussed the nationwide need for increased child labor awareness, research was unable to identify specific activities resulting from the meeting. Additionally, research indicates that the regime continued to be hampered by limited interministerial coordination to address child labor issues. |
| Policy | Description & Activities |
|---|
| Myanmar National Action Plan on Elimination of Child Labor (2019–2033): A long-term plan to be implemented through three distinct 5-year plans. Established in partnership with ILO to eliminate child labor, including its worst forms. The first 5-year plan (2019–2023) of the National Action Plan lapsed, and the second 5-year plan has not been drafted. |
| Myanmar Sustainable Development Plan (2018–2030): Sets out a strategy to expand social protection services, including by keeping children enrolled in schools and out of child labor. In particular, Action Plan Item 4.3.6 specifically addresses eliminating child labor by preventing school dropouts. There were no substantive actions taken to implement the plan during the reporting period. |
| 5-Year National Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons (2022–2027): Implemented by the Central Body for Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and aims to eliminate internal and cross-border trafficking in persons and to prevent new forms of trafficking. The regime has not published this plan, and, as a result, research was unable to determine its contents, scope, and objectives. Moreover, research was unable to determine whether activities were undertaken to implement the plan in 2024. |
| Program | Description & Activities |
|---|
| NGO-Operated Hotlines: UNICEF and World Vision-operated hotlines for reporting suspected cases of child recruitment or use of children by Burma’s military. Although research found that the hotlines were operational, reports indicate that the number of calls received has declined since the military coup, and it is unknown how many calls were received in 2024. |
| National Complaints Mechanism for Forced Labor (NCM): Program established by the regime which gives citizens a mechanism to lodge complaints and seek remedy. Includes the ability to report cases of child labor and child soldier recruitment. During the reporting period, the military regime expanded the NCM, allowing people to make reports to various government agencies, a move which has faced widespread criticism. Critics urge citizens to not use the NCM, as the military is one of the largest perpetrators of forced labor and child labor in the country and therefore should not be trusted to handle reports of forced labor. |
| Area | Suggested Action |
|---|---|
| Legal Framework | Determine by national law or regulation the types of hazardous work prohibited for children as required by the Child Rights Law. |
| Provide criminal penalties for the use, procuring, and offering of children under age 18 in illicit activities, including in the production and trafficking of drugs. | |
| Increase the compulsory education age from age 11 to age 14 to align with the minimum age for work. | |
| Enforcement | Provide adequate funding and equipment to the labor inspectorate and employ at least 565 labor inspectors to ensure adequate coverage of the labor force of approximately 22.6 million people. |
| Conduct labor inspections outside of the main urban centers and extend the labor inspectorate’s mandate to all sectors in which child labor is known to occur, including in agriculture, mining, construction, and fishing. | |
| Establish processes to refer child survivors of exploitation to the Department of Social Welfare for social services. | |
| Cease the practice of giving factory owners prior notice of unannounced inspections and interview a variety of workers during all labor inspections. | |
| Publish data related to labor law enforcement, including labor inspectorate funding; the number of worksite inspections; whether inspections were routine, targeted, or unannounced; whether child labor violations were found; whether penalties were imposed for child labor violations; and whether penalties imposed for child labor violations were collected; and provide adequate training to labor inspectors. | |
| Publish criminal enforcement information, including whether investigations into suspected cases of the worst forms of child labor were conducted, prosecutions were initiated, and perpetrators were convicted, and whether training was provided to criminal enforcement officials. | |
| Ensure that penalties for labor law violations are severe enough to deter violations, that regime officials complicit in the recruitment of children in armed conflict are held accountable for their actions, and that the penalties imposed for the recruitment and use of children in the military are commensurate with the seriousness of these crimes. | |
| Cease the practice of arresting and detaining victims of the worst forms of child labor and ensure that they are referred to the appropriate social services. | |
| Enforce laws that prohibit persons under the age of 18 from joining the armed forces to prevent the recruitment of children into the national military. | |
| Ensure that the National Complaints Mechanism for Forced Labor is active, independent, and able to receive reports of child soldiering. | |
| Provide the police with an adequate number of officers to investigate alleged child labor crimes, including in rural areas. | |
| Coordination | Ensure frequent and regular coordination, including communication, across all government ministries that oversee issues related to the worst forms of child labor. |
| Publish annually any activities undertaken by the Myanmar National Committee on Elimination of Child Labor to address and prevent child labor in the country. | |
| Remedy the backlog of child soldier cases in the Committee on Prevention of Recruitment of Child Soldiers. | |
| Government Policies | Renew the expired Myanmar National Action Plan on Elimination of Child Labor and ensure that it addresses all worst forms of child labor, including forced child labor and the commercial sexual exploitation of children. |
| Implement policies that impact the well-being of children, including the Myanmar Sustainable Development Plan and the Five-Year National Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons, and publish results from activities implemented on an annual basis. | |
| Social Programs | Implement a program to ensure the safe return of Rohingya people, including children, to Rakhine State, and remove barriers to education access for Rohingya children, such as citizenship requirements for schools and Rohingya movement restrictions. |
| Remove barriers to education access by withdrawing military regime personnel and members of non-state armed groups from occupied schools, building schools in rural areas, eliminating indirect school costs, and accommodating children who experience language barriers. | |
| Develop and implement programs to address all worst forms of child labor, including forced child labor and the commercial sexual exploitation of children. | |
| Ensure that the Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief and Resettlement has sufficient resources and personnel to provide services to victims of the worst forms of child labor. |