Child Labor and Forced Labor Reports
Kazakhstan
Minimal Advancement – Efforts Made but Continued Law that Delayed Advancement
In 2022, Kazakhstan made minimal advancement in efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labor. The government provided data on labor inspectorate funding for the first time since 2020 and increased that funding significantly. Training for labor inspectors was also provided, and new courses were created on the identification and remediation of child labor, including child trafficking. However, despite new initiatives to address child labor, Kazakhstan is assessed as having made only minimal advancement because it continued the implementation of the revised Entrepreneurial Code that delays advancement to eliminate child labor. On December 30, 2021, the President of Kazakhstan signed a law significantly restricting the circumstances under which unannounced inspections can be performed. The new law, which came into effect on January 1, 2023, codifies and expands the government’s existing practice under which unannounced inspections are prohibited in all cases, except in the presence of compelling grounds, and supporting evidence enclosed to such a complaint, or if an inspection is mandated by judicial or tax authorities. The lack of unannounced inspections may leave potential violations of child labor laws and other labor abuses undetected in workplaces. Children in Kazakhstan are subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including in commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking. Children also engage in child labor in markets. The government lacks current, comprehensive, and detailed research on child labor, including in cotton production. In addition, the government extended a moratorium through December 2022 under which labor inspections of small enterprises were permitted only in cases that pose a mass threat to life and health, law and social order, or national security.
Table 1 provides key indicators on children’s work and education in Kazakhstan.
| Children | Age | Percent |
|---|---|---|
| Working (% and population) | 5 to 14 | 3.2 (79,690) |
| Attending School (%) | 5 to 14 | 90.7 |
| Combining Work and School (%) | 7 to 14 | 3.6 |
| Primary Completion Rate (%) | 102.0 |
Source for primary completion rate: Data from 2020, published by UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2023. (1)
Source for all other data: International Labor Organization's analysis of statistics from Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 3 (MICS 3), 2006. (2)
Based on a review of available information, Table 2 provides an overview of children's work by sector and activity.
| Sector/Industry | Activity |
|---|---|
| Agriculture | Farming, including harvesting vegetables, weeding, collecting worms, and harvesting cotton† and tobacco† (3-6) |
| Milking cows, tending livestock, including horses and goats (4,7) | |
| Industry | Construction† and road repair, activities unknown (3,4,8) |
| Services | Working in markets and on the streets, including transporting and selling items† (3,4,8-12) |
| Domestic work, including childcare (3,4,8,13) | |
| Working in gas stations† (3) | |
| Car washing† (3,12) | |
| Working in catering and in restaurants† as waiters (3,12,14) | |
| Working as bus conductors† (3) | |
| Categorical Worst Forms of Child Labor‡ | Commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking (3,15) |
| Forced begging (15,16) | |
| Use in illicit activities, including selling drugs (3,15,17) |
† Determined by national law or regulation as hazardous and, as such, relevant to Article 3(d) of ILO C. 182.
‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.
There is no current and comprehensive research on child labor in Kazakhstan that can provide details about the number of children working in different sectors (including in construction, services, or the cultivation of cotton or other forms of agriculture), the nature of their work, or the hazards involved. (9) However, research indicates that children from the Kyrgyz Republic, some of whom may be unaccompanied, are reported to engage in work in Kazakhstan. (4) Migrant children seeking work are often unable to work legally, limiting their entitlement to work protections. Although migrant children theoretically have the right to part-time work once they are 16, in practice, many are unable to obtain work permits because they do not list "work" as their purpose for visiting the country when entering Kazakhstan. (4,15) Fear, corruption, and discrimination against migrants can also prevent migrant children from the Kyrgyz Republic from obtaining legal work permits. Kyrgyzstani migrant children over the age of 16 who have an irregular migration status are particularly vulnerable to administrative fines, arrest, and detention with adults. (4)
Migration authorities sometimes register migrant children under age 16 as unnamed family members, rather than under their own names, which prevents them from receiving Kazakhstani identification documents. (18,19) Some of these undocumented migrant children fall victim to forced child labor, and commercial sexual exploitation in Kazakhstan. Undocumented children may also face difficulties accessing health and education services. (3-5,15) Although Kazakhstan guarantees free education regardless of migration status, migrant children face barriers to accessing education. Children may enroll in school without identification documents; however, these documents are required to receive an official diploma. (3) Additionally, landlords often do not register migrant tenants, which may prevent migrant children from enrolling in local schools. (19)
Children with disabilities in Kazakhstan face challenges accessing education due to inaccessible school buildings, a lack of specialists able to provide inclusive education services, and official disability evaluations that render children eligible for at-home education only or ineligible for education entirely. (19,20) Children with disabilities who live in specialized, closed-care institutions may be compelled to assist with caring for younger children, including feeding, changing diapers, bathing, and dressing them. (13) In addition, disabled children who are unable to access mainstream education are at greater risk of being sent to such state institutions where they may not be able to access education and may be subjected to labor exploitation. (13,20)
Kazakhstan has ratified all key international conventions concerning child labor (Table 3).
| Convention | Ratification |
| ILO C. 138, Minimum Age | ✓ |
| ILO C. 182, Worst Forms of Child Labor | ✓ |
| UN CRC | ✓ |
| UN CRC Optional Protocol on Armed Conflict | ✓ |
| UN CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography | ✓ |
| Palermo Protocol on Trafficking in Persons | ✓ |
The government has established laws and regulations related to child labor (Table 4). However, gaps exist in Kazakhstan's legal framework to adequately protect children from the worst forms of child labor, including the exclusion of informal work from labor legislation.
| Standard | Meets International Standards | Age | Legislation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Minimum Age for Work | No | 18 | Articles 31 and 69 of the Labor Code; Article 153 of the Criminal Code (21,22) |
| Minimum Age for Hazardous Work | No | 18 | Article 26.1(2) of the Labor Code; Article 153 of the Criminal Code (21,22) |
| Identification of Hazardous Occupations or Activities Prohibited for Children | Yes | Article 26.1(2) of the Labor Code; Decree of the Minister of Health and Social Development No. 944 of 2015 (21,23) | |
| Prohibition of Forced Labor | Yes | Article 7 of the Labor Code; Articles 3, 128, and 135 of the Criminal Code (21,22) | |
| Prohibition of Child Trafficking | Yes | Article 135 of the Criminal Code (22) | |
| Prohibition of Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children | No | Articles 134, 135, and 312 of the Criminal Code (22) | |
| Prohibition of Using Children in Illicit Activities | Yes | Articles 132, 133, and 135.2(9) of the Criminal Code; Article 26.1(2) of the Labor Code (21,22) | |
| Minimum Age for Voluntary State Military Recruitment | Yes | 19 | Article 38.1(2) of the Military Service Act (24) |
| Prohibition of Compulsory Recruitment of Children by (State) Military | Yes | Article 31 of the Military Service Act (24) | |
| Prohibition of Military Recruitment by Non-state Armed Groups | Yes | Article 41 of the Law on Children’s Rights; Articles 132 and 267 of the Criminal Code (22,25) | |
| Compulsory Education Age | Yes | 17‡ | Article 30 of the Constitution; Articles 12 and 30 of the Law on Education (26,27) |
| Free Public Education | Yes | Article 30 of the Constitution (26) |
‡ Age calculated based on available information (28,29)
In 2022, the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MOIA) developed a draft bill targeting trafficking in persons, which is designed to improve Kazakhstan's legal framework on human trafficking in accord with international recommendations. Among other changes, the draft bill adds child trafficking as a specific offense. (17) However, the Labor Code's protections, including the minimum age for employment and prohibitions on hazardous work, do not meet international standards because they do not cover children working without a written employment contract. (21) Although Article 134 of the Criminal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan criminalizes involving a minor in prostitution, and Article 135 of the Criminal Code criminalizes trafficking of minors, including for the purpose of sexual exploitation, no law clearly criminalizes the users (clients) of prostitution involving children. (22) However, government officials report that any users identified in the course of a prostitution investigation involving minors will be charged under Article 122, which criminalizes adult sexual relations with persons under the age of 16. (17,30) Children in Kazakhstan are required to attend school through the completion of secondary education, which typically ends when they are around 17. This standard makes children age 17 vulnerable to child labor as they are not required to attend school but are still subject to legal restrictions on the hours and times of day they may work. (21,26,27)
The government has established institutional mechanisms for the enforcement of laws and regulations on child labor (Table 5). However, gaps exist within the operations of enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate enforcement of their child labor laws.
| Organization/Agency | Role & Activities |
|---|---|
| Ministry of Labor and Social Protection (MLSP) | Enforces child labor laws and conducts labor inspections through the Ministry’s Committee on Labor and Social Protection. Responsible for implementation and control functions in the fields of labor, employment, and social protection. (3,8,9) Implements the special social services program that funds shelters for survivors of trafficking, including children. In 2022, the MLSP's Committee on Labor, Social Protection, and Migration split into two different committees, with one focused on labor and social protection and the other on migration. (3) The chairperson of the labor and social protection committee holds the position of Chief Labor Inspector and coordinates the work of labor inspectors in the regions. (3) |
| Ministry of Internal Affairs (MOIA) | Oversees police and specialized law enforcement officials, including an Anti-Trafficking Unit. Identifies and carries out initial investigation of criminal cases involving the worst forms of child labor and hazardous child labor and refers cases to the Prosecutor General's Office for prosecution. (3) Engages in identification and protection of human trafficking victims, including child victims. In February and September of 2022, conducted activities under the ongoing multi-year operation “Stop-Trafficking,” which identified five cases of trafficking of minors and six cases of coercion of minors into prostitution. (3) |
Labor Law Enforcement
In 2022, labor law enforcement agencies in Kazakhstan took actions to address child labor (Table 6). However, gaps exist within the operations of the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection (MLSP) that may hinder adequate labor law enforcement, including lack of an appropriate number of inspectors.
| Overview of Labor Law Enforcement | 2021 | 2022 |
|---|---|---|
| Labor Inspectorate Funding | Unknown | $5.2 million (3) |
| Number of Labor Inspectors | 256 (8) | 261 (3) |
| Mechanism to Assess Civil Penalties | Yes (21,31) | Yes (21,31) |
| Training for Labor Inspectors Provided | No (8) | Yes (3) |
| Number of Labor Inspections Conducted at Worksite | 4,300 (8) | 4,920 (3) |
| Number of Child Labor Violations Found | 9 (8) | 3 (3) |
| Number of Child Labor Violations for Which Penalties Were Imposed | 9 (8) | 5 (3) |
| Number of Child Labor Penalties Imposed that Were Collected | 9 (8) | 5 (3) |
| Routine Inspections Conducted | Yes (8) | Yes (3) |
| Routine Inspections Targeted | No (8) | No (3) |
| Unannounced Inspections Permitted | Yes (32) | Yes (32) |
| Unannounced Inspections Conducted | Yes (8) | Yes (3) |
| Complaint Mechanism Exists | Yes (8) | Yes (3) |
| Reciprocal Referral Mechanism Exists Between Labor Authorities and Social Services | Yes (8) | Yes (3) |
During the reporting period, the government significantly increased funding for the labor inspectorate since the last time data were available in 2020, when its budget was $3.1 million. In addition, the Research Institute for Labor Protection under the MLSP conducted periodic recertification of labor inspectors, which required them to demonstrate competence in all facets of labor inspection. (3) In 2022, an advanced training course was conducted for labor inspectors and social workers, and the government developed a training program on the application of labor legislation and compliance enforcement, which included the eradication of child labor. (3) During the reporting period, labor inspectors identified three cases of child labor in the catering sector, and imposed administrative penalties against the employers. (3)
However, on December 7, 2022, the President extended a labor moratorium on small businesses until January 1, 2024. (3) Under this moratorium, an inspection can only occur at a small enterprise in cases that pose a mass threat to life and health, law and social order, or national security. (33,34) Small enterprises include businesses with fewer than 100 employees, and average revenue below a government-determined threshold. (32) Under the newly revised Entrepreneurial Code, beginning in 2023, all small businesses are exempt from inspections in their first 3 years after registration. (32,35)
Furthermore, additional restrictions came into force in 2023 that prohibit unannounced inspections unless there are convincing grounds and supporting evidence for suspected violations, or the inspection is mandated by judicial or tax authorities. (3,35) This law officially codifies what has been standard practice since 2020, and is in part a response to complaints from business owners that labor inspectors use unannounced inspections as a pretext to solicit bribes. (30) Under current law, labor inspectors generally must notify entities at least 1 full day prior to a site visit or inspection unless the Entrepreneurial Code provides for an exception to this notice requirement. (3,32) Labor inspectors from the MLSP are empowered to conduct unplanned inspections on the basis of complaints, which are only considered valid if they are not anonymous. These notice requirements limit inspectors' ability to check that working conditions comply with national labor laws, including those related to child labor. (3,32) Labor inspectors are currently authorized to conduct unannounced inspections of businesses on the basis of requests from law enforcement agencies, in response to complaints related to certain extreme health and safety hazards, and in cases in which the worksite is in a remote location. (3,8,9,32) In addition, labor inspectors can conduct routine inspections on the basis of risk assessment reports. (8,32)
The government also works with NGOs to conduct raids to detect child labor violations during annual, interministerial campaigns to raise awareness about, detect, and address incidences of child labor. These campaigns are widely publicized, limited in duration, and occur at approximately the same time each year. (8,9) As a result, the raids conducted during these campaigns may fail to adequately detect child labor in seasonal agriculture or in businesses that conceal violations in anticipation of these high-profile campaigns. There is also no indication of any inspections or raids specifically targeted at agriculture, which remains a high-risk sector for child labor. (4)
Criminal Law Enforcement
In 2022, criminal law enforcement agencies in Kazakhstan took actions to address child labor (Table 7). However, gaps exist within the operations of law enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate criminal law enforcement, including a failure to obtain convictions against those who exploit children in the worst forms of child labor.
| Overview of Criminal Law Enforcement | 2021 | 2022 |
|---|---|---|
| Training for Criminal Investigators Provided | Yes (8) | Yes (3) |
| Number of Investigations | 2 (8) | 11 (3) |
| Number of Prosecutions Initiated | 1 (8) | 9 (3) |
| Number of Convictions | 0 (8) | 0 (3) |
| Imposed Penalties for Violations Related to the Worst Forms of Child Labor | Unknown (8) | Unknown (3) |
| Reciprocal Referral Mechanism Exists Between Criminal Authorities and Social Services | Yes (8) | Yes (3) |
In 2022, police investigated 12 cases related to sexual exploitation of minors, including 2 cases of trafficking in minors for the purpose of sexual exploitation, 4 cases of coercion of minors into prostitution, and 6 cases of production of pornographic materials with the participation of minors. Authorities also investigated 12 incidents in which minors were involved in the sale and possession of drugs. (3) Nine cases were prosecuted, but no convictions were obtained during the reporting period. Police officers also identified a trafficking ring of 11 people who recruited women and minors into commercial sexual exploitation through false promises of high paying employment. Six minors were removed from trafficking as a result of the investigation, and the alleged traffickers remain in custody awaiting trial. (3) All child survivors of trafficking were provided with social assistance through government-funded shelters, including the Ministry of Education's regional Centers for the Adaptation of Minors. (3,17)
MOIA's Academy trained 21 investigators on investigation of violent crimes against women and children, and 40 police officers were trained on the prevention of trafficking in minors, commercial sexual exploitation of minors, and the involvement of minors in illegal activities. (3) Additionally, MOIA's Investigative Department introduced a training program for investigators on anti-corruption legislation that strengthened the liability for committing sex crimes against minors, and worked with the Department for Combating Organized Crime to develop methodological recommendations for the investigation of human trafficking crimes, including trafficking in minors. (3)
The government has established a key mechanism to coordinate its efforts to address child labor (Table 8).
| Coordinating Body | Role & Activities |
|---|---|
| National Coordination Council on Combating the Worst Forms of Child Labor | Implements the National Action Plan (NAP) for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor 2020–2022. (36) In 2022, the Council met to discuss implementation of the NAP, and draft legislation which would further clarify the types of light work permitted for children ages 14–16. (3) |
The Ministry of Education (MOE), previously the Ministry of Education and Science, also coordinates child protection activities, including response to child labor complaints. MOE's regional Departments of Education and regional Centers for the Adaptation of Minors are responsible for the coordination and management of all child protection activities, including providing services for child survivors of trafficking. (3,17) An official from the regional-level Department of Education responds to reports of child labor and determines whether law enforcement should investigate cases of alleged child labor. (37) If the case is in agriculture, local officials meet with parents and school officials to reinforce that children should be in school during the academic year. MOE's Center for the Adaptation of Minors provides assistance to survivors of the worst forms of child labor and makes referrals to appropriate government services or NGOs for further assistance. (37) MOE's Child Protection Committee also runs a hotline to receive reports of child labor. (3)
The government has established policies related to child labor (Table 9). However, policy gaps exist that hinder efforts to address child labor, including insufficient implementation of policies related to child labor.
| Policy | Description & Activities |
|---|---|
| National Action Plan (NAP) for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor (2020–2022) | Addressed three priority areas, which included (a) the creation of policies and laws to eliminate the worst forms of child labor; (b) the creation of programs to monitor vulnerable communities and sectors with the highest risk of child labor, and provide services to children who have been exploited in child labor; and (c) raising awareness about the worst forms of child labor. (36) During the reporting period, the government published a report on activities undertaken in 2022 to implement the NAP. (3) |
| National Action Plan to Counter Trafficking in Persons (2021–2023) | Includes legislation improvements to provide shelter assistance to non-citizen survivors, align the legal definition of human trafficking with international standards, and improve identification procedures for front-line officials. (3,8) Some of the planned activities specifically target the worst forms of child labor, including efforts to prevent forced child labor, including the exploitation of child labor in cotton and tobacco fields and at construction sites; monitor and exchange data between competent agencies on advertisements of human trafficking and child pornography; and conduct human trafficking prevention and awareness campaigns for children. (3,8) Research was unable to determine whether activities were undertaken to implement the National Action Plan to Counter Trafficking in Persons during the reporting period. |
| Roadmap to Strengthen the Protection of the Rights of Children, Counter Domestic Violence, and Address Suicide Among Adolescents (2020–2023) | Addresses issues related to children’s mental health and social well-being. (38) In 2022, under this policy, the government implemented anti-bullying protocols in schools, and created a framework to identify children requiring additional support. Teachers and psychologists assisted over 7,000 children through this policy during the reporting period. (3) |
‡ The government had other policies that may have addressed child labor issues or had an impact on child labor. (9,38)
In 2022, the government funded and participated in programs that include the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor (Table 10). However, gaps exist in these social programs, including inadequate efforts to address child labor in all sectors.
| Program | Description & Activities |
|---|---|
| Juvenile Care Centers† | MOE-run centers for minors located throughout Kazakhstan. Provide temporary shelter and assistance to vulnerable children, including child survivors of the worst forms of child labor, and street children. (9,39) Research was unable to determine whether the centers were active during the reporting period. |
| Shelters for Trafficking Victims† | Funded by the government and operated by NGOs, they provide legal, psychological, medical, and educational services to survivors of human trafficking, including minors, in seven provinces and two cities, including Almaty. (15,39) In 2022, the government removed all identified child survivors of sexual exploitation from the circumstances of exploitation, and referred them to government‐funded shelters for social services and other assistance. (3) |
| Awareness-Raising Campaigns† | Raise public awareness on child labor issues, including the annual "Twelve Days Against Child Labor" campaign, conducted June 1–12, 2022, in which the government and NGOs organized over 7,100 joint checks to inspect over 10,300 sites, including local markets, gas stations, and construction sites. The national campaign reportedly reached over 900,000 children and 420,000 parents and employers. (3) |
For information about USDOL’s projects to address child labor around the world, visit https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/ilab-project-page-search
† Program is funded by the Government of Kazakhstan.
‡ The government had other social programs that may have included the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor. (40)
Although the Government of Kazakhstan implemented programs in 2022 to protect vulnerable children and raise awareness about child labor, research found no evidence that it has carried out programs to assist children engaged in child labor in agriculture or service sectors.
Based on the reporting above, suggested actions are identified that would advance the elimination of child labor in Kazakhstan (Table 11).
| Area | Suggested Action | Year(s) Suggested |
|---|---|---|
| Legal Framework | Ensure that minimum age provisions and hazardous work prohibitions apply to all children, including those working without an employment contract. | 2016 – 2022 |
| Increase the compulsory education age from 17 years old to 18 years old to align with the minimum age for work. | 2022 | |
| Criminally prohibit and penalize the use of a child for prostitution. | 2019 – 2022 | |
| Enforcement | Strengthen the labor inspection system by eliminating barriers for onsite and unannounced inspections, as well as targeting high-risk industries for inspections. | 2020 – 2022 |
| Lift the moratorium on labor inspections at small enterprises and ensure that the labor inspectorate conducts routine, targeted, and unannounced labor inspections at such businesses as appropriate. | 2020 – 2022 | |
| Strengthen detection of child labor by ensuring that targeted enforcement efforts, such as raids and unannounced labor inspections, are undertaken throughout the year and in all sectors in which children are vulnerable to child labor, including in agriculture. | 2020 – 2022 | |
| Publish information on penalties imposed for criminal cases of the worst forms of child labor. | 2022 | |
| Government Policies | Publish information on activities undertaken to implement the National Action Plan for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor. | 2020 – 2022 |
| Social Programs | Conduct research to gather comprehensive data on child labor, including the activities carried out by children working in agriculture, in construction, and in the service sector, to inform policies and programs. | 2013 – 2022 |
| Remove barriers that prevent migrant children, ages 16 and 17, from obtaining legal work permits for light work. | 2021 – 2022 | |
| Ensure that migrant children who must be detained are housed in appropriate facilities separate from adult detainees. | 2021 – 2022 | |
| Ensure that all children have access to education and may receive official diplomas, including children with irregular migration status and children with disabilities, and raise awareness in vulnerable communities about existing remedies for denial of school enrollment. | 2018 – 2022 | |
| Ensure that Juvenile Care Centers continue to operate and publicize information on activities undertaken during the reporting period. | 2021 – 2022 | |
| Institute programs to address child labor, particularly in the agriculture and service sectors. | 2014 – 2022 |
- UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Gross intake ratio to the last grade of primary education, both sexes (%). Accessed: March 15, 2023. For more information, please see “Children’s Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions” in the Reference Materials section of this report.
http://data.uis.unesco.org/. - ILO. Analysis of Child Economic Activity and School Attendance Statistics from National Household or Child Labor Surveys. Original data from Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 3 (MICS 3), 2006. Analysis received March 2023. Please see “Children’s Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions” in the Reference Materials section of this report.
- U.S. Embassy- Nur-Sultan. Reporting. February 16, 2023.
- International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH). Invisible and exploited in Kazakhstan: the plight of Kyrgyz migrant workers and members of their families. June 2018.
https://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/kyrgyz_migrant_workers_in_kazakhstan.pdf - ILO CEACR. Individual Observation concerning Worst Forms of Child Labor Convention, 1999 (No. 182) Kazakhstan (ratification: 2003). Published: 2019.
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:3959489:NO - Isa, Dilara. A month in the fields to earn money for internet Schoolchildren in the cotton fields. Radio Azattyk, October 2020.
https://rus.azattyq.org/a/kazakhstan-turkestan-region-child-labour-in-cotton-fields/30894173.html - Kerven, Carol et al. Pastoralism at Scale on the Kazakh Rangelands: From Clans to Workers to Ranchers. January 2021.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348621728_Pastoralism_at_Scale_on_the_Kazakh_Rangelands_From_Clans_to_Workers_to_Ranchers - U.S. Embassy- Nur-Sultan. Reporting. January 31, 2022.
- U.S. Embassy- Nur-Sultan. Reporting. January 15, 2021.
- U.S. Embassy- Nur-Sultan. Reporting. January 15, 2020.
- Askhat, Akmetbekov. Schoolchildren worked at markets in Almaty. Azattyk Ryhy, October 23, 2020.
https://rus.azattyq-ruhy.kz/incidents/16562-shkolniki-rabotali-na-rynkakh-v-almaty - KazInform. Cases of illegal child labor uncovered in Kazakhstan. September 27, 2019.
https://www.inform.kz/ru/fakty-nezakonnogo-detskogo-truda-vyyavili-v-kazahstane_a3570117 - Human Rights Watch. Kazakhstan: Children in Institutions Isolated, Abused. July 17, 2019.
https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/17/kazakhstan-children-institutions-isolated-abused - Zakon.kz. Schoolchildren who died in a Zhanaozen cafe were from single-parent families. November 27, 2019.
https://www.zakon.kz/4996527-umershie-v-kafe-zhanaozena-shkolniki.html - U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report- 2022: Kazakhstan. Washington, D.C., July 19, 2022.
https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/kazakhstan/ - U.S. Embassy- Astana. Reporting. January 19, 2018.
- U.S. Embassy- Nur-Sultan. Reporting. April 5, 2023.
- Abzhekenova, Nazgul. Unseen Children: In Astana, concerns about rights of migrants' children. Caravan.kz, October 19, 2018.
https://www.caravan.kz/gazeta/detinevidimki-v-astane-ozabotilis-pravami-detejj-migrantov-490132/ - UNICEF. A situation analysis of children in Kazakhstan. 2019.
https://www.unicef.org/kazakhstan/en/reports/situation-analysis-children-kazakhstan - Human Rights Watch. "On the Margins": Education for children with disabilities in Kazakhstan. March 2019.
https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/kazakhstan0319_web3.pdf - Government of Kazakhstan. Labor Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, No. 414-V. Enacted: November 23, 2015.
http://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=38910832 - Government of Kazakhstan. The Criminal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, No. 226-V, as amended. Enacted: July 3, 2014.
http://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=31575252 - Government of Kazakhstan, Minister of Health and Social Development. Decree No. 944 of December 8, 2015, effective January 1, 2016. (The previous list of hazardous work for minors, Decree No. 391 of 2015 was repealed by Decree 971 of 2015, effective January 1, 2016. There are no substantive changes between Decree 944 and Decree 391). Enacted: December 8, 2015.
http://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=35844164 - Government of Kazakhstan. Law No. 561-IV on Military Service and the Status of Military Personnel, as amended. Enacted: February 16, 2012.
http://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=31130640 - Government of Kazakhstan. Law No. 345-II on Children's Rights (as amended). Enacted: August 8, 2002.
https://online.zakon.kz/m/Document/?doc_id=1032460 - Government of Kazakhstan. Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Enacted: August 30, 1995.
http://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=1005029#sub_id=100000 - Government of Kazakhstan. Law No. 319-III On Education (as amended). Enacted: July 27, 2007.
http://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=30118747 - U.S. Embassy- Nur-Sultan official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. May 14, 2019.
- Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Education Policy Outlook: Kazakhstan. 2018.
http://www.oecd.org/education/Education-Policy-Outlook-Country-Profile-Kazakhstan-2018.pdf - U.S. Embassy- Nur-Sultan official. Communication to USDOL official. June 14, 2022.
- Government of Kazakhstan. Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Administrative Offenses. Enacted: 2014.
https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=31577399#pos=0;36144 - Government of Kazakhstan. The Entrepreneurial Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, No. 375-V.
https://online.zakon.kz/Document/Document.aspx?doc_id=38259854 - Government of Kazakhstan. Order on the introduction of a moratorium on conducting inspections and preventive control and oversight involving visits in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Enacted: December 2019.
http://adilet.zan.kz/rus/docs/U1900000229 - Government of Kazakhstan. Information on the realization of ILO recommendations regarding the fulfilment of provisions of Convention 87 "Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organize Convention," as well as pertaining to questions raised during the September 28, 2020, online meeting. December 28, 2020. Source on file.
- Government of Kazakhstan. Law No. 95-VII of the Republic of Kazakhstan. December 30, 2021.
https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=39403356 - Government of Kazakhstan, Ministry of Labor and Social Protection. Decree no. 428 on the introduction of changes in the Decree of the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of the Republic of Kazakhstan of 31 March 2006 No. 73-p, "On the creation of the National Coordination Council for Combating the Worst Forms of Child Labor" and approval of the National Action Plan for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor 2020–2022, in accordance with the Convention on the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor. Enacted: August 14, 2019. Source on file.
- U.S. Embassy- Astana. Reporting. February 19, 2019.
- Government of Kazakhstan. Decree No. 156 of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan On approval of the Roadmap to strengthen the protection of the rights of the child, combat domestic violence and address issues of suicidality among adolescents for 2020-2023. Enacted: March 30, 2020.
https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=33721914 - U.S. Embassy- Nur-Sultan. Reporting. February 11, 2021.
- Government of Kazakhstan, Ministry of Education and Science. State Program of Education Development in the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2011–2020. December 7, 2010.
https://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/sites/default/files/ressources/kazakhstan_state_program-of-education-development-in-the-republic-of-kazakhstan_2011-2020.pdf
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